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Significance

Various countries will increasingly permit or conduct seabed mining within their jurisdiction, while demand for metals for the green energy transition and international tensions over the critical mineral supply chain further hamper governance.

Impacts

The environmental impacts of large-scale seabed mining are unknown, but will probably be impossible to reverse after they become apparent.

The oceans’ interconnected nature and role as carbon sinks means that seabed mining could intensify global warming and climate instability.

China’s enthusiasm for seabed exploitation will aggravate tensions with other states, especially in the disputed South China Sea.

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