Diplomacy by sub-national governments.
Sub-national governments are increasingly articulating global agendas distinctive from the foreign policies of their national governments. Together with the rising economic power of sub-national entities, this potentially increases their ability to shape global policy. Yet a global reach remains the preserve of states, rather than cities, in highly federalised systems.
Rapid urbanisation and consequent land scarcity will drive tall building construction in major cities, especially in East Asia.
'Smart city' approaches using data analysis to improve service effectiveness will gain traction, but unevenly.
Municipal debt health will deteriorate where populations are shrinking fastest, such as in post-industrial US cities.
Population growth is likely to outstrip revenue expansion in Africa's 'mega cities' resulting in poorer infrastructure and service deficits.
