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Significance

The main assault from the south is led by the national army, with US air support. However, Iran-backed Popular Mobilisation Units (PMUs) are also participating to the east and west, while Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) Peshmerga hold areas in the north.

Impacts

IS fighters will hold out as long as possible in Tal Afar, likely using civilians as human shields.

The Kurdish secession referendum planned for September 25 could be an immediate trigger of violence.

The KRG is likely to insist on holding the vote in disputed areas under its military control, to establish a claim for annexation.

International oil and gas firms that have signed contracts with the KRG will hang back from new investment in disputed areas.

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