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Significance

In fact, ten years after that conflict started, with President Bashar al-Assad still in control of two-thirds of the country, no foreign state shows any sign of making a major contribution to reconstruction, estimated to cost USD250bn-USD400bn.

Impacts

COVID-19’s economic impacts have further reduced the likelihood of Iran, Russia or Turkey making a new reconstruction push.

International aid will remain concentrated on humanitarian goals, even as some development organisations point out the long-term pitfalls.

In the medium term, donors may consider creating a special UN- or World Bank-administered trust fund for approved reconstruction.

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