The live events industry is a hugely important aspect of the UK economy. The sector has been seen to be negatively impacted by Brexit and devastated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Trade organisations have championed the plight of companies and freelancers and have lobbied the Government for support, producing reports drawn from surveys of industry-based professionals. Skills deficits have been highlighted as a key concern and this study explores this issue through the lived experiences of employers and freelancers working across the sector.
An interpretivist qualitative research methodology was employed, with data collected from one-to-one semi-structured interviews with 13 experienced live events industry professionals. Overarching and emergent themes were coded, classified and analysed via iterative content analysis.
The pandemic highlighted deep structural issues in the live events sector, including reliance on insecure freelance work, poor conditions, and non-inclusive hiring practices. Issues around work-life balance are driving high staff turnover, particularly among younger workers. Limited engagement with universities weakens talent pipelines.
Access to relatable role models, more inclusive recruitment practices, improving early career experiences and working conditions is critical to attracting and retaining a diverse, informed and skilled workforce.
This research provides unique insights into the impact of skills deficits in the UK live events industry. The findings contribute to the development of strategies to enhance the skills pipeline and workforce stability.
Introduction
The UK’s economic performance since the turn of the millennium has reflected poor productivity growth. The economy has failed to recover its growth trajectory since the global financial crisis in 2008. The Brexit vote of 2016 and the UK's subsequent exit from the European Union in 2020 introduced additional uncertainty, complicating trade and discouraging investment (Williams et al., 2025). The COVID-19 pandemic further deepened the challenges, leading to a sharp economic contraction, widespread business closures, and lasting disruptions to both the labour market and supply chains (Hasan et al., 2022). The “Skills for Success” report (MakeUK, 2025) contends that the United Kingdom is currently facing a significant economic and productivity crisis and focuses on the importance of human resources to mitigate the impact:
The most important asset to any economy is its people. Britain’s economic and productivity crisis can only be solved if we have a highly skilled workforce in place, embedded in the latest technologies and equipped with the skills to use them effectively. (MakeUK, 2025, p. 4)
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines skills as encompassing cognitive and non-cognitive abilities and capabilities that are aligned to a certain occupation or sector. Furthermore, skill statements describe the effective manual, verbal, or cognitive handling of data or things. For example, the ability to drive a vehicle or carry out the computational analysis of data. Skills can be assessed through performance tests that evaluate both the quantity and quality of the output (OECD, 2017).
Hurrell (2016) notes that skills deficits encapsulates both skills shortages and skills gaps. Skills shortages relate to difficulties that employers may experience in sourcing candidates with the correct skills, qualifications and/or experience. Skills gaps relate to a mismatch between employer needs and the skills available to them within their existing pool of employees:
Skills shortages are thus a barometer for skills supply in the labour market whilst skills gaps reflect employers’ internal skills needs. (Hurrell, 2016, p. 1)
A typical measure of skills deficits is derived from employer surveys. For example, the UK government gathers data via the Employer Skills Survey, which provides an overview of skills needs, approaches to enhancing the skills pipeline, apprenticeships and training (Department for Education, 2025). Addressing skills mismatches and shortages is a significant global challenge for labour markets and training systems, in a context of rapidly evolving workplace practices driven by technology-based change. Current employees may need to be upskilled to adjust to new technologies. Employers may struggle to find employees with the right skills for the job and graduates can have difficulties in securing jobs that align with their qualifications:
Skill gaps are categorically considered the biggest barrier to business transformation by Future of Jobs Survey respondents, with 63% of employers identifying them as a major barrier over the 2025–2030 period. (World Economic Forum, 2025, p. 6)
Higher Education provides a key skills pipeline for employers globally. Schofer and Meyer (2005) highlight the exponential growth in the number of people pursuing Higher Education with enrolment figures rising to between 50% and 80% in some industrialised countries. Such growth is primarily driven by societal pressures rather than the needs of the labour market, with demand for further growth increasing as participation rates rise (Marginson, 2016). UNESCO (2021) contends that alongside issues in the labour market, skills deficits reflect a systemic failure of education systems to keep pace with social, economic, environmental and technological change.
This article examines the impact of skills deficits post-Brexit/COVID-19 through the lens of a particular aspect of the UK economy, the live events industry. Trade organisation, The Power of Events (2025), states that the live events industry encompasses: exhibitions and congress; bespoke sports events; outdoor events and festivals; weddings and private events; music and live performances public and third sector; business and brand experiences.
The live events industry is hugely important to the UK economy. The UK event industry provides an estimated 775,000 jobs (Quadrant2Design, 2022) and is valued at £61.6 billion (UK Events, 2024). The UK performing arts sector supports 244,000 jobs (Society of London Theatre and UK Theatre, 2025) with UK theatre delivering £2.39 billion in gross value add to the UK economy (Sound Diplomacy, 2023). The purpose of this article is to explore skills deficits in the UK live events sector, encompassing skills pipelines, skills retention and future development.
Background
The creative industries are those which:
[…] have their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent and which have a potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and exploitation of intellectual property. (Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 2001, p. 3)
The growth of the creative industries reflects a broader shift towards an economy based on precarious labour. Employment in this sector tends to be on a short-term basis, typically via fixed-term contracts and is particularly vulnerable to market forces (Hancock and Tyler, 2025).
The UK creative industries encompass advertising, architecture, art and antiques, crafts, design, fashion, film and video production, interactive entertainment, music, publishing, software, television, radio and performing arts, which includes the live events sector (Department for CultureMedia and Sport, 2001). As a key aspect of the UK creative industries, it is useful to explore live events through the lens of creative labour/precarity theory (Gill and Pratt, 2008). Standing (2011) contends that the “precariat” consists of people who lack security in terms of labour market, employment, job, work, skill reproduction, income and representation. The precariat has been seen to grow in line with globalisation and the pervasive commodification reflected across modern lifestyles.
Valuing work as a lifestyle choice, cultural workers are flexible and creative, self-motivated and drawn to informal workplace cultures with strong social networks (Gill and Pratt, 2008). Hesmondhalgh and Baker (2010) highlight the paradox that such passion-driven attitudes can lead to exploitation. This model of creative labour is reflected in the UK live events industry. The lived experience of those working in this sector typically involves temporary, intermittent and precarious employment; long and irregular working hours, often characterised by intense cycles of overwork and the erosion of boundaries between work and leisure (Swartjes and Haynes, 2023).
The vulnerability of creatives within the wider precariat is highlighted by the impact of the two key drivers for the skills deficits in the UK live events industry: Brexit and the COVID-19 pandemic.
Crucially for this sector, the UK decision to leave the European Union (“Brexit”) in 2020 brought the return of visas for UK staff working on the Continent and restrictions on UK companies employing staff from Europe. ATA Carnets were also now required. A carnet being:
a temporary export document that covers professional equipment and goods being tentatively exported for display at trade fairs or exhibitions, including live performances (Homan, 2023, p. 324)
As professionals across the live events sector adjusted to this new economic reality, the industry was devastated by the COVID-19 crisis. COVID-19 restrictions in the UK started in March 2020, with the return of live events not starting until July 2021:
The unparalleled lockdowns throughout 2020 and 2021 resulted in a significant reduction in turnover for businesses operating throughout the Live Events industry, which led to 45% of companies taking on debt. (PLASA and #WeMakeEvents, 2022, p. 5)
In line with Standing’s (2011) interpretation of precarity, workers across the live events sector typically lack representation security. Tending to be self-employed and not part of a trade union, the vulnerability of these workers was immediately apparent when COVID-19 restrictions were introduced in 2020. In the absence of trade unions, trade bodies lobbied the Government for support in response to the crisis across the various aspects of the live events industry. In November/December 2021, PLASA, an organisation representing the live events industry, gathered responses from around 2,000 professionals working in the sector (65% based in the United Kingdom). The data highlighted that the unprecedented lockdowns of 2020 and 2021 led to a sharp decline in turnover for businesses across the live events industry. The lack of work triggered a mass departure of freelancers, with 64% moving into other sectors. Sixty-nine percent of companies reported experiencing a shortage of skilled workers, particularly in roles such as site crew, riggers, engineers and technicians. At the time of the survey, half of the freelancers had not returned to the industry full-time. Additionally, the report reflected a growing lack of confidence among companies in the relevance of university courses tailored to support entry to the sector (PLASA and #WeMakeEvents, 2022).
In their 2023 Industry Report, Entourage Pro, another network representing the sector, carried out a survey of over 1,000 industry professionals, mainly freelancers working across the production industry, 50% of whom were from the UK 68% of respondents from the freelance community had pursued alternative employment post-COVID. This included fields such as 3D visualisation, construction, electrical work, education, financial planning, insurance, digital marketing and app development.
The report highlighted that many professionals across the sector discovered that their core skills were transferable and shifted into other aspects of the entertainment industry, such as film, broadcast television and corporate events. Some chose to enhance their existing expertise, moving into areas such as audio engineering, lighting design, and video production. Additional roles taken up included COVID compliance officers and health and safety specialists. However, 41% reported that mental health issues had restricted or compromised their ability to work (Entourage Pro, 2023).
PLASA published three reports in 2024, sharing survey data that provides an update on industry perspectives on the extent to which the sector was in recovery. In one report, 198 industry professionals responded to a survey. The companies represented employ around 12,000 people. 87% of the respondents were based in the United Kingdom. A key finding from the survey was that the most significant challenge to businesses over the next 12 months was the shortage of experienced personnel and skills. 73% of respondents highlighted this as a greater concern than energy costs, global events, component shortages or Brexit (PLASA, 2024a).
Filling the void left by the loss of highly experienced staff, new entrants to the industry have been drawn from Generation Z (“Gen Z”, people born from 1995 to 2010) and brought particularly nuanced perspectives. Generational cohort theory suggests that shared experiences can create a strong generational identity, which can influence attitudes and behaviours (De Pelsmacker, 2025). Growing up as digital natives, Gen Z attitudes and approaches to processing information are seen to be quite different from previous generations (Francis and Hoefel, 2018). Gen Z are seen to prioritise wellbeing and a good work-life balance, seek meaningful work with clear career development and expect ethical behaviour from employers (Fuchs et al., 2024).
Hansen and Leuty (2011) noted that while some evidence points to generational differences in work values, further research indicates that the similarities across generations outweigh the differences. However, recent studies have highlighted the wider acceptance of a generational shift, perhaps in part due to the rise of viral workplace trends like “quiet quitting,” “bare minimum Mondays” and “productivity theatre” contributing to a growing perception that Gen Z lacks commitment on the job (Deloitte, 2025). The Deloitte report went on to note that tensions between generations in the workplace often arise from the distinct environments in which each group began their careers, shaping their outlooks and workplace expectations in different ways. The experiences of Gen Z entering the workforce were impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic and this may account for the step change in expectations and aspirations.
PLASA’s Workforce and Skills Report (2024a) noted the churn in younger staff as they try out the lifestyle associated with working in live events but then leave due to poor pay and conditions. Furthermore, a respondent highlighted issues regarding the employment of young people:
I am genuinely shocked by the poor standard of new people coming through. Their reaction to being asked to do specific tasks is like I’m their father asking them to tidy their room, rather than an employer asking an employee to do the job they’re being paid for. Not willing to learn and thinking Google has all the answers. Not accepting that experience is everything. (PLASA, 2024a, p. 21)
Routes into the live events sector have evolved across generations. The expansion of Higher Education in the United Kingdom has seen the growth of vocational degrees, designed to develop skills for career paths that historically did not require a degree, such as in live events. Various technical and non-technical degrees in the United Kingdom have been designed to facilitate entry to careers in the live events industry. However, in summarising interviews with six industry professionals about the value of event management education, Kashef (2015), suggested that employers placed little value on formal credentials when recruiting staff. Instead, any industry experience gained through volunteering or work placements was prioritised. Degree courses are valued mainly for the access they provide to industry networks and experiential opportunities, suggesting that event management education should be more vocational and practice-oriented.
Stone et al. (2017) noted that understanding students’ perceptions of careers in events is essential, as examining these attitudes helps to identify gaps between how careers in event management are understood and the realities of professional practice:
A huge 66% of respondents feel that overall, the industry doesn’t provide an early enough introduction to available careers in live entertainment. Clearer entry points and closer relationships with schools, academies and universities is needed. (Entourage Pro, 2023)
Furthermore, O’Brien et al. (2016) also highlight issues around inclusivity reflected in cultural workers being predominantly drawn from narrow social groups. PLASA’s 2024 report highlighted issues around diversity across the live events sector:
Compared to the overall UK population […], the entertainment and events technology market is more likely to be male and tends to be slightly older. Only a minority identified as non-binary (2%) or were transgender (1%). […] In the PLASA London Show 2023 exit survey, only 17% of visitors were female [ …]. In the UK population, 18% identify as non-white, whereas that figure for the industry is only 4%. (PLASA, 2024b)
Given the importance of the live events sector to the UK economy, the effect of Brexit and the devastating impact of COVID-19 and subsequent skills deficits, there is a clear requirement to explore the structural issues impacting the industry. Whilst trade reports have surfaced key issues, this study addresses a research gap related to gaining a deeper understanding of evolving practices and attitudes. This study considers the indicators and impact of a skills deficit across the live events sector and the consequences for stakeholders.
Methodology
Surveys carried out by trade organisations such as PLASA and Entourage Pro, offer an overview of industry trends, tracking issues around skills pipelines since Brexit and COVID-19. However, such surveys do not offer an in-depth exploration of the lived experiences of stakeholders dealing with the impact of these issues.
Employer surveys, by their nature, are subjective and lack comparability. As a result, findings from different surveys may be inconsistent. These surveys typically reflect employers’ perceptions of shortages, which are sometimes conflated with recruitment challenges, regardless of the underlying causes. In many cases, hiring difficulties may not stem from a genuine lack of skills in the labour market but from factors such as poor working conditions, uncompetitive wages or ineffective human resource practices (OECD, 2017).
Furthermore:
Employers represent a heterogeneous group; they differ in the size of their organisations, their sector, their education and their skills requirements. That is why pronouncements claiming to represent the “needs of employers” should be treated with caution. (Huddleston and Keep, 1999 cited in Huddleston and Laczik, 2012, p. 410)
This study explores the perspectives of industry practitioners on perceived skills deficits in the UK live events industry following Brexit and the COVID-19 pandemic. The exploratory focus of this research aligns with a qualitative approach to data collection.
Bryman (2015) highlights the opportunity to explore the subjective experiences of participants through the adoption of an interpretivist approach. The credibility of this method is founded on the opportunity for participants to frame the issues in their own terms within a theoretically informed framework:
Through qualitative research we can explore a wide array of dimensions of the social world, including the texture and weave of everyday life, the understandings, experiences and imaginings of our research participants, the ways that social processes, institutions, discourses or relationships work, and the significance of the meanings that they generate. (Mason, 2002, p. 1)
A single method approach based on semi-structured interviews was the chosen data collection tool as the emphasis was on exploring the empirical accounts of a range of professionals from across the diverse live events industry:
The depth of information provided by interviews can produce best “value for money” if the informants are willing and able to give information that others could not – when what they offer is insight they have as people in a special position “to know”. (Denscombe, 2010, p. 174)
A purposive sample was implemented to elicit the knowledge of industry professionals with a range of experience working in selected aspects of the UK live events industry. Industry networks were drawn upon and supplemented with recommendations for further participants from the respondents themselves. The professionals represented a blend of expertise, both technical and non-technical. The group included sound engineers working across live music, corporate events and theatre, a broadcast engineer, project managers and suppliers of audiovisual professionals and equipment. Interviewees were deliberately chosen to reflect a range of experiences in the sector. To facilitate the exploration of the real-world application of generational cohort theory, it was crucial to capture the perspectives of highly experienced professionals alongside newer entrants to the sector. All the individuals approached agreed to participate.
Across the cohort of respondents, six are actively involved in the recruitment of staff and four are freelancers. Companies represented range from multinationals to micro-companies. All the interviewees are based in the United Kingdom, although 12 of the respondents may work abroad on occasion (see Table 1).
Interviewee characteristics
| Role | Expertise | Length of professional experience |
|---|---|---|
| Senior production technician, live events company | Sound engineering | 14 years |
| Managing director, company specialising in production and event support | Live event production | 40 years |
| Freelancer sound engineer | Sound engineering | 7 years |
| Production manager | Technical production for live events | 16 years |
| Events production company owner | Management corporate live event production | 30 years |
| Freelance broadcast engineer | Broadcast engineering | 4 years |
| Freelance theatre sound engineer | Sound engineering | 12 years |
| Junior production manager | Corporate events production | 5 years |
| Freelance sound engineer | Sound engineering | 9 years |
| Sound engineer | Sound engineering | 6 years |
| Manager, theatre production company | Theatre production | 12 years |
| Senior account manager, event production company | Event production technology support | 15 years |
| Technical director, theatre | Theatre production | 25 years |
Data collection took place from July to October 2024. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore a predefined set of topics while allowing flexibility in the discussion. This method allowed the interviewees to expand on ideas and have an active role in shaping the research itself. Such interviews allow the researcher to request clarification in real time during data collection and, as such, enhance validity (Denscombe, 2010). The sessions lasted between 45 and 60 min and were carried out via video conferencing software. The convenience of digital interviews increased the geographical reach, eliminated travel costs and increased flexibility (Thunberg and Arnell, 2021). Interview recordings were transcribed automatically and checked for accuracy. Individual transcriptions were transferred into NVIVO, specialised software for qualitative data analysis. The reading and re-reading of interview transcript data supported the classification of overarching and emergent themes via content analysis.
The following themes guided the discussions: manifestation and impact of the post-Brexit/COVID-19 skills deficit; generational challenges; recruitment and retention challenges; perceptions of the skills pipeline.
A key limitation of a semi-structured interview research methodology is that data is co-produced between the interviewer and the respondent and as such, the influence of the interviewer on the data produced cannot be ignored. Furthermore, the subjective nature of an interpretive approach to data analysis means that complete researcher neutrality is unattainable. Moreover, the purposeful approach to sampling for this study is context-specific and could not be said to be representative of a wider population.
Ethical approval was granted for this work.
Findings/discussion
Overall, data gathered through interviews with a cross-section of professionals working in aspects of the UK live events industry explores the manifestation of skills deficits, in part as a consequence of Brexit and more profoundly through the existential threat posed by the COVID-19 pandemic.
The data gathered reflects how organisations and individuals have sought to mitigate some of the problems, the compromises that companies have had to make to stay in business and subsequent changes in working practices.
Analysing the findings of this study through the lens of creative labour/precarity theory and generational cohort theory shifts the perception of the impact of COVID-19 (and to a lesser extent, Brexit) on the live events sector as exceptional external events. Rather, it can be seen that the skills deficits since the pandemic reflect the inherent vulnerability of a sector founded on freelance workers that lack the protections of employed staff, outdated working conditions and non-inclusive hiring practices.
The research reveals issues around perceived changes in generational attitudes towards work and considers the skills pipeline, particularly important in the context of rapid development and adoption of new technologies across the sector.
Manifestation and impact of the post-Brexit/COVID-19 skills deficit
Interview feedback gathered from industry professionals highlights difficulties in sourcing the personnel required to service the explosion in live events once COVID-19 restrictions were lifted in 2021:
Festival business came back far too quickly. We were under resourced, a lot of people trying to do two festivals in one summer and there just wasn't enough kit. There wasn't enough people, certainly at the lower end […] where it really hit hard – your crewing level and particularly security. (Live Events Production Manager, company owner)
Whilst the initial surge in demand inevitably caused significant problems, issues around understaffing persisted. The following quote from a live sound engineer working as a member of staff for a multinational live events company illustrates how skills deficits were manifested in day-to-day operations with production schedules reflecting gaps in production teams:
[…] you'll go on a gig and you'll be like hang on a minute, “shouldn't there be four of us doing this? And there's only three of us.” And it's like, “well, we couldn't get anybody.” (Senior Production Technician, live events company)
Such issues raise concerns regarding health and safety:
post-COVID there was a lot of young new junior staff that made-up the full local crew team and you would just be like, no one really knows what they're doing, and it is a little bit dangerous as well, just because people don't know the dangers to look out for sometimes if they're new. (Freelance Sound Engineer)
The demand for skilled workers outstripping the supply of available staff inevitably leads to increased wage demands. Five out of the 6 respondents who are actively involved in the recruitment of staff highlighted issues caused by higher staffing costs. One company owner noted that the impact of rising wage costs is compounded for event producers who may be bound by contracts running from three to five years. The inability to pass on rising staffing costs to clients can be highly problematic for businesses servicing contracts to provide services for events.
Moreover, with skills in short supply, freelancers may also be juggling different clients on the same day:
The busy times of the year, so May, June and October, November you would get freelancers jumping from show to show and sometimes sneaking in some overnights as well if they knew it was going to be easy and obviously people would turn up not having had much sleep and not be 100% in the game. I don’t think that was entirely down to greed, I think it is a little bit down to, skill shortage, and […] being a bit of a sort of savage, basically, a hostile culture almost. (Production Manager)
This attitude reflects Standing’s (2011) assertion that without the fraternal bonds born out of established institutional relationships, the precariat may act opportunistically, capitalising on their enhanced bargaining position.
One interviewee noted that such practices involving extended working periods in the United Kingdom would not be tenable on the Continent due to the stricter employment laws operating in the European Union. Furthermore, respondents discussed issues around European staff returning home post-Brexit and the long-term impact of the loss of highly experienced staff:
I know the British Government […] are looking at, reinstating a freedom of movement for young people under the age of 30, which will be super, super important for our industry. This is a problem that will take a little bit of time to manifest itself because the people that had Indefinite Leave to Remain in 2019–2020 are moving into more senior positions and obviously there's a backfill that has to happen. (Production Manager)
Respondents did not highlight problems around UK staff having difficulties working across Europe as part of touring parties. The nature of such excursions is typically such that the rule of a limit of working 90 days over a period of 180 days does not apply. However, the impact of increased bureaucracy was seen to be burdensome. The transit of equipment now requires detailed manifests and carnets. The extra demand on human resources to oversee the required paperwork has led to innovation and more sophisticated approaches to tracking the movement of individual items of equipment:
[…] we've got to a point now where we've actually got GPS trackers, little air tags that are in our carnets. At any point in time, we could look on a map and see where the carnets are […]. That department has become absolutely fantastic, really efficient, great processes in place to manage the creation of manifests and carnets. (Senior Account Manager, event production company)
Generational challenges
In line with generational cohort theory, the findings of this study would suggest that shared experiences prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic have influenced the attitudes and behaviours of generational groups. At both ends of the generational spectrum, concerns around working conditions were seen to be changing attitudes towards working in the live events industry.
The apparent lack of support for freelancers working across the live events sector during the COVID-19 period, manifest in the inability to claim furlough income, highlighted the precarious working conditions of many professionals in the sector. The individualistic approach to employment saw these workers being highly exposed without the protections of permanent contracts and union support. One interviewee for this study highlighted the psychological difficulties suffered by live events professionals over this period due to their vulnerable work status. This has parallels with the propensity for mental health issues born out of precarity in cultural work as highlighted by Gill and Pratt (2008).
The lack of available work in live events led to staff seeking more traditional employment. Some experienced staff subsequently settled into the benefits of more mainstream occupations with regular hours and a steady income, an important driver in the context of a cost-of-living crisis:
[…] some people just realised, […] it's nice to see my wife and kids sometimes and not being stressed out and not live on a moving vehicle for six months out of the year. (Freelance Sound Engineer)
Eight interviewees for this study, across the different aspects of the live events sector, spoke of witnessing changes in attitude in younger people entering the industry. Respondents contrasted the attitudes that they are witnessing now in comparison to how they felt when starting out. In line with the findings of Fuchs et al. (2024), one employer suggested that Gen Z workers value time more than money. In this context, traditional incentives may no longer work as motivating factors. Respondents highlighted that the live sector, by the nature of the work, relies on flexibility across teams. Whilst there was sympathy for pursuing a good work-life balance, this causes problems in managing human resources.
Feedback from interviewees for this study reflects Gill and Pratt’s (2008) assertions that the passion and motivation of individuals that underpins the cultural/creative sectors leads to the blurring of work and private lives, long hours, unpaid overtime, job insecurity and exploitation. Interviewees highlighted the precarity of the “traditional” approach to developing a career in live events. Notions of “paying your dues”, typically involving new entrants carrying out more menial tasks, working long and flexible hours for low pay, “sometimes touching on the illegal level of bad pay” stated a theatre sound engineer. Another respondent noted that one of the benefits of this system was that the low cost of young staff was such that managers were more tolerant of mistakes.
Findings from this study highlight tensions across generational cohorts. Employers explained that managing changes in attitude and demand for a more structured, predictable work schedule from younger staff were proving problematic. Moreover, interviewees reflected on the impatience of relatively inexperienced staff to progress through the ranks and earn more money. A company owner working in live events delivery noted that younger employees may have expectations of progression after 18 months for a journey that traditionally would have taken 5 years. They are also seeking similar speedy advancement in salaries:
Some of the money that they're asking for their day rates is more than very, very experienced guys that have gone up in increments over the years. […] if someone's going to pay you that money, they really expect you to be absolutely elite level at your job. (Senior Account Manager, event production company)
8 respondents (including five out of the six interviewees who are actively involved in the recruitment of staff) noted a shift in attitudes from when they started working in events to those currently looking to work in the sector. Interviewees recalled that the excitement of having the opportunity to work in live events was such that they were content to work long hours for low pay, gradually rising through the ranks, earning more money and engaging with more demanding technical roles. In alignment with Hesmondhalgh and Baker’s research (2010), for more experienced interviewees, the excitement around working in live events carried them through the more difficult aspects of the work, such as poor working conditions and job insecurity. However, the generational shift is such that whilst the attraction of working in the creative sector remains, the tolerance for the lifestyle that goes along with it is seen to have diminished. A highly experienced professional specialising in the delivery of live events reflected that 5–15 years ago, employees seemed grateful to be working in the industry, but now “we're lucky to have them”.
Similarly, a theatre production company manager reflected:
[…] I remember when I was in my early 20s and I was just desperate to get a job and it felt like a privilege to get a job in theatre and now we're in interviews and you say “and do you have any questions for us” at the end and 50% of the time now you get asked some version of “what are you as an employer, are you going to offer me” […]. It’s this odd idea that you as the employer are lucky to be getting them to work for you rather than the other way around. […] I’m kind of struggling to get my head around that. Manager, Theatre Production company
One industry professional shared an example that illustrates the difficulties of managing younger staff:
[…] I said I need you for a client call at 8:30 AM, which is half an hour before what it says in their contract […] and they said “No, no, I can't. I can't do that. I'll be at the gym […], I don't have to start working ‘till nine.” […] Back in my day, you just wouldn't say that. You just, […] change your plans. It was all about impressions. (Production Manager)
Bennett and McGuiness (2009) assert that in the context of a skills deficit, the forces of supply and demand are such that freelancers with specialist skills can be selective and charge a higher rate. The temporary shift in power balance between employers and workers brought about by the skills deficit has seen professionals in live events exploiting opportunities to earn more money and being more open to breaking contracts. Feedback from employers for this study reflects the impact of such practices on business and pressures on managers tasked with “keeping the show on the road”.
A manager in a theatre production company highlighted changing attitudes towards contractual obligations. In the past, it was highly unusual for freelance staff to break a contract, having agreed to work for a fixed period, they would honour the agreement “out of professional pride”. As a manager, she is now dealing with freelancers breaking contracts halfway through the term “on a semi-regular basis”.
Whilst previously employers would have shown discretion around working from home, changes in attitudes towards work have forced companies to be more prescriptive. One employer noted that working hours are now more clearly defined in employment contracts to facilitate disciplinary procedures if required.
Such feedback from the respondents illustrates how attitudes have been seen to have shifted, particularly regarding Gen Z workers. In line with De Pelsmacker’s (2025) framing of generational cohort theory, it could be inferred that the shared experience of these workers is shaping their attitudes towards work-life balance to such an extent that employers are struggling to adjust. The skills deficit has meant that employers do not have the luxury of reaching out to a ready pool of new recruits who may more readily accept traditional norms.
A young freelancer, currently working as a broadcast engineer in television, presented an alternative perspective. She shared witnessing various negative comments from older colleagues reflecting perceptions that younger staff were lazy. She felt that this was a misinterpretation and stated that her generation had observed people who had burnt out through overwork and wanted to achieve a more balanced, healthy lifestyle, prioritising family, friends and doing things that they enjoy alongside work.
Recruitment and retention challenges
Shortages in the supply of skilled, experienced staff have resulted in employers having to take on young people who are not fully prepared for the roles that they are being asked to fill:
Multiple times in the last three years since the pandemic, I've hired someone as a graduate and put them in a Number One role and I feel really stressed about that because that puts everyone including them in such a pressured place. (Manager, Theatre Production company)
One of the impacts of this shift is a greater overhead in terms of initial staff development. A theatre sound engineer highlighted the impact of supporting inexperienced staff who were working beyond their capabilities:
I was doing a show with one of my deputies […] but their technical side was never really built up because they kind of hopped around, […] a little bit of this and a little bit of that and now they're mixing shows. It meant that I was always basically on call. Unofficially, because I knew that if I just left them to it, they wouldn't be able to cope with the situation. So that has made my job harder. Freelance Theatre Sound Engineer
A young sound engineer highlighted the need for hands-on experience and the importance of being given the opportunity to learn from mistakes:
[…] I think this industry is quite quick to write people off. […] young people are less willing to keep pursuing and keep pushing because they've had their confidence knocked by how cutthroat the industry can be. (Sound Engineer)
Severe staff shortages have meant that the traditional reliance on established professional networks was insufficient and companies had to recruit staff that were not steeped in the culture of working in live events. Personal recommendation is still important even if companies are having to advertise for posts beyond industry-specific platforms:
[…] the skills pipeline is one thing, but the attitude pipeline is more important because you can teach people stuff, but […] teaching somebody not to be an idiot is harder than teaching them how to set up an amplifier (Senior Account Manager, event production company)
Another issue raised was around investing time and money into staff training and having staff leave without the company having had the opportunity to see a return on the investment. A manager working in live events noted that in response, companies are extending probation periods and incorporating lock-in clauses for a certain length of time. If an employee wishes to leave before this date, they are obliged to buy themselves out of the contract.
Hesmondhalgh and Baker’s (2010) notions of “good work/bad work” was reflected in the feedback of interviewees. The excitement of being part of skilled teams working together under pressure to deliver exciting events is compelling. However, “bad work” traits such as long hours, unsafe working conditions, poor work-life balance, extended periods away from family and friends in inadequate accommodation can undermine staff retention, driving a churn of younger workers that may be less willing to accept such disadvantages as a trade-off for the privilege of working in live events. Noting a statement from one company in the sector that the average career expectancy of one of their freelancers on the road is about 5 years, one respondent stated:
[…] once you've been on the road for a really long stretch all at once and you get home and you just feel awful, it takes you weeks to get used to being home again. (Freelance Sound Engineer)
For some live events professionals, the stresses endured over the COVID-19 period and their exposure as freelancers led them to seek more stable employment. Some live events specialists switched from precarious employment in the creative sector to permanent employment within companies such as audio product manufacturers. Typically, these individuals were paid substantially more and worked 9 to 5. As one employer in live events explained, to keep crucial employees with 10–15 years of experience, they have had to increase their pay to compete with other companies that previously were not a direct threat. Such investment is seen to be critical as part of succession planning to upskill the next generation.
Tensions born out of shifts in supply and demand can be seen to have driven a move away from the precarity of freelance employment within the live events sector. A project manager for a global live events company reflected on how post-pandemic, companies have evolved their approach to the blend of full-time staff and freelancers that are required to service the needs of their clients. One live sound engineer who switched from freelance to salaried staff asserted that his current position was as a direct result of skills shortages post-pandemic. The practice of putting highly experienced technical staff on retainers for fixed periods is a long-established industry practice, but this has evolved. Global consolidation across the live events industry has seen UK-based companies adopting practices from North America and employing live sound technicians as full-time members of staff to secure their skills:
[…] they've been freelancers and then they've come to work for us full-time because we've got pension, we've got healthcare and we've got holiday. […] There's all these benefits and they still get to do the touring work, but they've got a basic salary and they know if they don't do any work in a month, they're still going to get paid a wage at the end of it. So that's an ever-expanding team (Senior Account Manager, event production company)
For one sector of the live event industry, generational changes in attitudes towards working conditions are particularly problematic. Long-established working practices in UK theatres may no longer be tenable in the face of expectations from young entrants:
I think one of the things that people are always surprised about with the touring sector is we still do digs. Theatres have digs lists […] and we call up people and go “since you've got a spare room, can I come and stay for a week?” which in any other industry would almost be mad. (Freelance Theatre Sound Engineer)
Practices are evolving, however. An employer in the theatre sector spoke of efforts to retain staff through compensating for long hours at peak periods with time off in lieu. Such efforts were born out of negotiation with union representatives. It is important to note the impact of representation here; theatre is more unionised than some aspects of the live events industry. In contrast to freelancers, the status of these workers is less precarious.
Feedback from a live sound engineer with touring bands illustrated changes in attitude across generations and a heightened awareness of the precarity of long-term employment in live events. This engineer spoke of the issues around navigating career paths through the constraints of long-established company practices. Warehouse work tends to be lower paid, typically focusing on entry-level jobs. There is then a leap to well-paid project managers. The interviewee felt that there should be more permanent senior technician roles to retain knowledge within the company to support client liaison. Having worked as a touring live sound engineer for a few years, this freelancer did not foresee a career based on being on the road and was mindful of being trapped in a lifestyle that was more suited to younger staff:
Are we going to be doing this, just being on the road, being on a bus when we're in our 60 and 70s? […]. I have toured with people like that and […] you can just see […] they clearly just don't want to be doing this, but they can't do anything else because there just isn't the positions available for people with their skill sets that pays well enough. (Freelance Sound Engineer)
Skills pipeline
The live events industry may be large, diverse in terms of roles and valuable to the UK economy, but it is also rather opaque. As a young production manager reflected, “I say I work in events, […] most people kind of ask, what is that?”
One of the most experienced interviewees highlighted this lack of visibility of the industry as key to the issues around the skills pipeline:
[…] ultimately, if you haven't defined an industry and the range of opportunities within it and the range of sectors within it and the range of skills required in it and the broad career job roles and how diverse they are, if that's not defined anywhere and not showcased anywhere, it's not a huge surprise that we have a crisis of […] attraction and retention. (Events Production company owner)
Interviewees reflected that engagement with Higher Education institutions tends to be ad hoc and unstructured. A manager, based at a theatre production company, highlighted the lack of alignment between university and theatre timelines as a barrier to developing structured work experience opportunities. Theatre productions do not necessarily follow set annual cycles. Opportunities for work experience can be short and set-up times between theatres and universities can be lengthy.
A company owner stated that a lack of initial prior experience and preparedness is one of the most significant challenges facing the industry. He reflected that his colleagues in the sector are disappointed in both the industry and academia for failing to establish meaningful connections with emerging talent at an earlier stage. This lack of opportunities to engage with structured, high-quality work experience ahead of joining the industry, compounded by inadequate infrastructure and training to support new entrants, was cited as the cause of high staff turnover amongst new recruits. Young people enter the industry with unrealistic expectations and quickly leave, feeding a cycle of dissatisfaction from employers:
It's huge and frustrating for everyone and it just shows, we need to grow up as an industry. We're still very embryonic. (Events Production company owner)
The general lack of ongoing engagement between industry professionals and universities reflected by the respondents mirrors the findings of Barron and Ali-Knight (2017), who emphasise that addressing employability challenges in the events sector requires shared responsibility between Higher Education and industry, with organisations needing to actively provide and support meaningful work experience opportunities. Such collaboration would need to be founded on a deeper understanding of the perspectives of employers, universities and students. Kashef’s (2015) assertion that employers value experience over certification and findings from Barron and Ali-Knight (2017) that graduates feel unprepared for working life highlight the importance of closer engagement.
However, another theatre professional reflected on successful relationships with a local college and university. To address issues with sourcing staff to support a show, the theatre management reached out for student support:
We decided that we would love to offer nine or ten students each year, the opportunity to work for 4 weeks for us, paid work, to help us backstage with the rehearsals and the shows. This is the third year we've been doing it, the first year was an absolute triumph. The students were brilliantly turned out, always punctual, did exactly what was required of them. Technical Director, theatre
Two graduates who had come through degree programmes that provided platforms facilitating direct access for students to industry networks stated that such an approach can be invaluable to students taking their first tentative steps into working in live events and can be hugely beneficial to both parties.
A graduate with six years of professional experience said that she had observed an employer deliberately focusing on college-leavers rather than graduates due to cost savings. In doing so, she noted that they are missing out on the depth of technical skills that can be achieved in some degree programmes.
Whilst internships can provide a platform to gain entry-level skills, the experiences of early-career staff suggested that this was perceived as a source of free labour, which lacked training and, as such, was a missed opportunity for both employers and employees. Year-long professional placements can offer another opportunity to gain entry to professional careers. However, graduates found that there was a steep learning curve, particularly regarding adaptation to the lifestyle of working in the events industry.
The skills pipeline was also considered in terms of the impact of new technologies, in particular, artificial intelligence. Interviewees reported that developments in automation are removing opportunities to learn foundational skills and that this can create a barrier to entry and progression. For example, one of the respondents highlighted a lighting system that incorporates trackers so that the lighting desk “knows” the position of all performers on stage. This replaces the need for what was previously a junior technician role to operate a follow spotlight. The impact of this is that where a human operator is required, technicians with the foundation skills are less readily available.
Generally, interviewees were not concerned about the potential of generative AI tools to replace human technicians. One live sound engineer saw the use of AI technology in studio recording continuing to cascade to live events, creating generic mixes of live performances. Another asserted that:
People may try to use AI as a thing to just avoid having a live sound engineer […] but I feel like it would just never work because you need the human ear. […] It's different having, an actual person to a robot who will actually be able to provide that quality and the communication and have that face-to-face interaction. (Sound Engineer)
The switch to online events over the pandemic saw the need for staff who were skilled in the use of streaming technologies. This has created opportunities in the broadcast sector for those who have developed their skills in this area. Skills in networking and communications technology are also in demand. One industry professional reflected on issues around older staff not keeping up with developments in such technologies, however.
The shared experience of Brexit and COVID-19 has surfaced generational challenges, impacted recruitment and retention and highlighted issues with the skills pipeline. However, the professionals interviewed for this study, representing key facets of the industry, were generally positive about the future. There was recognition of the shortcomings of long-established practices, acknowledgment of shifts in attitudes and recommendations for change.
Recommendations
Access to recognisable, relatable role models is key to creating a workforce that more closely reflects the wider population. There is potential to build on innovative initiatives such as the Schools Engagement Programme established in 2024 by The Power of Events and supported by Events Industry Forum grant funding. Strategies that focus on inclusion with opportunities for meaningful work experience, giving young people exposure to lifestyles that do not necessarily reflect mainstream employment, are critical to ensure that new entrants are joining from a position of knowledge. With a clear appreciation of the work-life culture in live events, new entrants can embrace the opportunities that the sector can provide.
Efforts to enhance the diversity of workforces across live events offer the potential to address skills deficits. However, investment in outreach activities supported by trade organisations and the training of new staff will be undermined without addressing the issues that have been highlighted as driving experienced professionals from the sector.
Employers across the live events industry could consider their approach to initial interactions with potential employees. Work experience, internships and professional placements provide excellent platforms for learning but can be perceived as simply a source of cheap labour. Maximising the potential of such opportunities can incentivise engagement with the sector rather than encouraging potentially strong employees to pursue more traditional career paths where the training and opportunities for learning and progression are more structured.
Whilst generational cohort theory should not be used to imply that all Gen Z workers have the same attitudes and values, findings from this research would suggest that there has been a noticeable shift in baseline expectations, perhaps born out of the shared experience of growing up as digital natives and visibility of alternative work models. This study has found divergence between traditional practices across the UK live events sector and the Gen Z focus on a sustainable work-life balance. Adaption to the EU’s “Working Time Directive” has demonstrated that employers in Europe are able to sustain live events and work within the constraints of average working hours that must not exceed 8 h per 24-h period (European Commission, 2003). Whilst such a change is costly, it promotes a work-life balance more in line with the expectations of Gen Z and may support staff retention. Rather than being perceived as a force that may undermine the success of the live events sector, such attitudes could lead to a more stable, diverse and highly skilled workforce that is more resilient to any future disruptions driven by external forces.
Post-COVID-19 skills deficits in the UK live events sector should not be compartmentalised as a one-off issue that can be resolved through outreach programmes alone. The shift in the generational dynamics across the sector provides the opportunity to address the conditions that undermine retention and loss of highly skilled, experienced staff. Precarious employment models erode the skills base. The burden of risk that is carried by freelancers needs to be mitigated through fairer contractual practices supporting the retention and cascading of skills underpinned by clear progression pathways.
Conclusion
This study reflects the authentic lived experiences of professionals drawn from across the spectrum of the UK live events industry, giving voice to respondents who were keen to share their experiences of working through a very turbulent period. The findings surface tensions across generations, reflecting shifts in attitude that may be undermining long-established norms in the sector. Generational cohort theory emphasises the impact of shared experiences on generational identity and this study illustrates how this is translated into changes in attitudes and behaviours, causing tensions between newer entrants to the sector and their more experienced peers. This is seen to be destabilising the long-established trade-off of poor work-life balance, poor working conditions and precarious employment for the excitement and privilege of working in live events. Whilst this study serves to distil some of the issues currently impacting the UK live events sector, it also illustrates a clear path for future development based on attracting a more diverse workforce, supporting the well-being of workers and evolving away from the precarious employment that is seen to be undermining the potential of the sector.
