Towards holistic and interdisciplinary education for sustainable development: an analysis of English-medium ESD master’s programs in Europe

A period marked by environmental deterioration, social inequities and economic challenges has brought attention to the need for sustainable development (SD) on a global scale. According to Van Poeck and Vandenabeele (2012), SD should be reframed as a public issue that is essential to democratic engagement and social participation as well as an environmental aim. Therefore, by offering individuals the knowledge, skills and mentality needed to progress sustainable societies, education for sustainable development (ESD) is a crucial step towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nation (Ferrer-Estévez and Chalmeta, 2021). The importance of ESD is found in its capacity to establish learning environments that promote democratic participation and active citizenship, therefore presenting sustainability as an all-encompassing goal that goes beyond environmental considerations (Van Poeck and Vandenabeele, 2012). Higher education contributes to the United Nation’s SDGs not only by ensuring equal access to tertiary education (SDG 4), but also as a catalyst for achieving the full set of goals through its roles in human formation, knowledge production and innovation (Chankseliani and McCowan, 2021). Consequently, education at the university level is essential for promoting sustainable practices and fostering the competencies needed to address global sustainability challenges (Tolppanen and Kärkkäinen, 2022).

Universities across the globe, thereby, have endeavoured to integrate ESD into their objectives for teaching and learning. The many facets of sustainability, from social justice and economic parity to environmental preservation and sustainable urban design, are carefully considered in the creation of these university curricula. The supply of specialist sustainability modules, as well as the instruction of subjects originating in SD research, remains fundamental to many ESD activities (Mulà et al., 2017). These programmes should be interdisciplinary and adapt to the needs of the modern and emerging world so that graduates will become entrepreneurial, morally oriented and able to think critically, complexly and systemically (Acevedo-Duque et al., 2023). Therefore, graduate ESD programmes tend to incorporate project-based learning as a means of supporting students’ development of self-perceived competency, with an emphasis on student autonomy, teamwork and real-world connections (Birdman et al., 2022). Compared to undergraduate programmes, master’s-level sustainability programmes are designed to build core and advanced competencies in SD (Trencher et al., 2018). In another study by Alkaher and Goldman (2018), although graduate teacher-students demonstrated a strong sense of identity as role models and educational agents of change, their lack of environmental knowledge raises concerns about the foundations of knowledge that undergraduate teacher-training programmes provide, suggesting that graduate teacher programmes need to supplement this. Given these features, examining the landscape of master’s programmes in ESD is essential to understand how they prepare graduates to implement SD for educational purposes.

Nevertheless, existing literature mostly comprises evidence and isolated examples from higher educational institutions rather than comprehensive studies. More specifically, there is a lack of detailed analysis of how graduate programmes specifically aim to tackle sustainability issues (Singer-Brodowski et al., 2019). This gap highlights the need for systematic studies to understand universities’ ESD implementation and impact across different contexts (Chang and Kidman, 2018) and a comprehensive analysis of these programmes’ scope, focus and interconnectivity. Given this broad context, we selected the European area for our study on ESD programmes for various compelling reasons. Universities in Europe have long been acknowledged for their diversity and innovation in integrating sustainability into higher education. For example, European universities usually conduct project training and interdisciplinary programmes related to acquiring effective skills for the solving and implementation of sustainability-related matters (Birdman et al., 2022). In addition, European ESD programmes are frequently taken as reference points for best practices that can be adapted and adopted on an international scale (Weber and Cabras, 2021). This paper aims to bridge the research gaps by presenting a detailed examination of ESD master’s programmes taught in English in Europe, guided by three research questions (RQs):

This research intends to give a comprehensive analysis of ESD by critically analysing the most recently released information on European universities’ websites, including course descriptions and programme overviews of 16 English-medium master’s programmes in ESD. Sustainability education programmes and ESD programmes are mistaken for one another; however, this study focuses specifically on ESD programmes. In these programmes, participants are not only learners of ESD but also implementers who apply and promote ESD in their own contexts. Because of this dual role, the needs of such programmes differ from those that simply equip participants with tools to implement sustainability without preparing them to educate others.

Our research provides a comprehensive picture of how ESD programmes operate in Europe, and more importantly, the topics and themes that these programmes cover. Drawing on the findings, this study also provides implications to various stakeholders, such as curriculum designers, policymakers and potential students. As among the first pan-European, English- medium, network-analysis of ESD master’s curricula, this study adds to the current body of literature on how different issues related to ESD are studied together, and how the provision of these programmes can contribute to a sustainable future by giving students the values, knowledge and skills they need. We note, however, that our focus on English- medium programmes means the study does not capture the full diversity of European ESD provision, which may differ across languages and national contexts.

SD has been widely perceived as “meeting the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987, p. 8). According to Summers and Childs (2007), SD should be comprehended in at least three dimensions: environmental, social and economic. Numerous scholars adopted a comprehensive perspective on the diverse aspects of SD, highlighting its interconnected and holistic features (e.g. Berglund et al., 2014; Clayton, 1996). In the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, the idea of incorporating SD issues into education was officially introduced in Agenda 21. Since then, a series of relevant terms have emerged, such as Education for Sustainability, Sustainable Education, Sustainability Education and Education for Global Citizenship. This study opted for consistency by using the term ESD, which enjoys broad international recognition, particularly within the framework of the United Nations.

Research on the integration of ESD into graduate programmes involved in-depth case studies conducted in various countries. For example, Sims and Falkenberg (2013) demonstrated the significance of experiential, interdisciplinary and inter-institutional learning, as well as the importance of using real-life issues within the community and the surroundings into project-based learning at four Canadian universities. This view was further supported by Farsari (2022), who studied a sustainable tourism programme in Sweden using an autoethnographic approach. In Spain, Sánchez-Carracedo et al. (2021) reported that the most frequently occurring ESD topic in the Education Programme was ethical principles associated with sustainability values, whereas the least prevalent was sustainable resource utilisation. Brudermann et al. (2019) identified three ESD elements in environmental sciences and SD programmes at an Austrian university:

1. interdisciplinarity, trans-disciplinarity and student engagement;

2. international perspectives and topics; and

3. complex systems sciences and digitalisation.

These case studies highlight the diverse ways in which ESD principles are integrated into graduate programmes worldwide.

Research shows that integrating ESD themes into higher education curricula often lacks coherence and consistency. For example, while some programmes focus on sustainability, others may emphasise social responsibility or ethics without a unified approach (Consorte-McCrea et al., 2018). Nordic countries were highlighted for high performance in ESD, but there is a call for a detailed analysis to understand variations and best practices applicable across Europe; this indicates a gap in understanding the specific strategies and frameworks that lead to successful ESD implementation in different European regions (Momete and Momete, 2021). Meanwhile, designing curricula that integrate ESD principles in innovative ways is a significant challenge. Curriculum developers need to be open to new concepts and approaches that combine educational, sustainability and disciplinary knowledge (Wiek et al., 2011). By analysing the most recently released information on European university websites, including course descriptions and programme overviews of 16 English-medium master’s programmes in ESD, our research offers a picture of how ESD programmes operate in the European region, including the interdisciplinary nature of these programmes.

This study uses the three pillars of sustainability – environmental, economic and social – as a theoretical framework, and the concept of holistic ESD to analyse programmes in European universities. To assess the interdisciplinarity of ESD programmes, the analysis focuses on evaluating how courses incorporate topics from the three pillars to provide an understanding of sustainability for students. It also identifies whether programmes emphasise a specific pillar or adopt a balanced approach across the pillars.

The first pillar, environmental sustainability, focuses on natural environmental health and emphasises the value of ecosystem preservation, pollution reduction and the conservation of natural resources (Harris, 2003). In this regard, in the development of higher education, institutions have actively begun reducing environmental footprints through varied initiatives towards carbon footprint mitigation, climate change education programmes and research in environmental sustainability (Tolppanen et al., 2022). Social sustainability addresses the human dimension of sustainability and therefore has a concern for the maintenance and betterment of social quality, equity, community development and social cohesion (Colantonio and Dixon, 2011). A lot of work in promoting social sustainability is done by higher learning institutions, namely, providing for inclusion policies, community engagement and a diverse just academic environment, thereby increasing social cohesion and enhancing the general well-being of people and communities (Podgórska and Zdonek, 2024). Economic sustainability is the third pillar under the sustainability framework, consisting of long-term policies that promote economic growth and stability, alongside efficient resource use and equity, developed simultaneously in a way that does not deplete natural assets. This spans solid budget management, intelligent investment in sustainable infrastructure and the formation of collaborations that improve economic potential for both the institution and the surrounding community (Leal Filho et al., 2023).

The three pillars of the sustainability framework ensure that all critical dimensions of sustainability are considered and integrated into higher education programmes. This enables institutions to come up with an all-rounded curriculum that the students can use when solving complex challenges related to sustainability from all perspectives (Elkington, 1997). With this kind of knowledge, students will be effective and efficient in their future work by thinking critically and innovatively about sustainability challenges, which prepares them for almost any career situation (Leal Filho et al., 2023). Therefore, when three pillars are applied to the content of ESD courses in higher education programmes, it assures that sustainability is not treated as just a stand-alone topic but part and parcel of learning at an educational institution. The study tries to classify the programmes under single-pillar or mixed type to locate the dominant pillar in each programme and understand the extent to which these pillars are integrated in an interdisciplinary manner.

In addition to examining the use of three pillars, we also investigate the concept of “holistic ESD” which integrates not only scientific but also psychological and ethical dimensions into learning. For instance, the “head, heart, and hands” model fosters transformative learning that connects theory to real-world problems (Mahmud, 2017). Most SD competencies are demonstrated to link with ethical and moral elements, which highlights their value-driven nature (Lambrechts et al., 2013). Combining both the interdisciplinary framework and the holistic concept of ESD, this study adopts the lens of ESD curricula addressing environmental, social and economic pillars, meanwhile focusing on scientific, moral and ethical attitudes towards those pillars.

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the global landscape of English-medium master’s programmes in ESD, this study gathered programme and course descriptions for detailed analysis. The data collection took place between January 2024 and February 2024, in which various combinations of keywords such as (“master’s program” OR “MA” OR “MSc”) AND (“education” OR “learning” OR “teaching”) AND (“sustainable development*” OR “sustainability*”) were used. These keywords were used in three services to facilitate indexing: mastersportal.com, educations.com and findamasters.com. All three platforms provide international listings of master’s programmes and are widely used by prospective students (FindAUniversity Ltd, 2026; Keystone Education Group, 2026). To ensure the reliability of the information, two authors cross-verified the programme details by checking the links provided on these platforms, which typically direct users to the official university websites. This step confirms that while these platforms serve as search engines for master’s programmes, the authoritative and most current information resides on the universities’ official pages. We included master’s programmes that are conducted in English in Faculty of Education or teacher training unit among European universities. English‐medium programmes were selected for inclusion in the study since they enable comparison across multiple national higher‐education systems and tend to attract diverse, cross-cultural cohorts which enrich sustainability learning through the exchange of multiple worldviews. Especially in the European context, where each country has their own language, English programmes are the only feasible way to bring together an internationally heterogenous group of people. English is the most widely used medium for international programme delivery and allows for consistent cross-national comparison using publicly available information across European higher-education portals. Including programmes in multiple national languages would require country-specific searches, translation and validation procedures that are beyond the current study’s scope and feasibility. Therefore, we excluded programmes that:

• were offered exclusively in national or local languages;

• were not degree-oriented or targeted at other educational levels (e.g. doctoral programmes and postgraduate certificate or diploma programmes);

• did not fall within the scope of either education or sustainability;

• focused solely on education without incorporating a sustainability perspective; and

• focused solely on sustainability without incorporating an educational dimension.

Initially, the study identified 146 programmes, of which 101 stemmed from mastersportal.com, 79 from findamasters.com and 65 from educations.com. During the selection process (Figure 1), programmes that failed to meet the initial eligibility criteria were removed. These included programmes that were either ineligible or located outside of Europe (n = 70), as well as those targeting other educational levels or not degree-oriented (n = 29). The first and the second author screened the remaining 146 programmes separately. After deleting the programmes that did not fall within the scope of either education or sustainability, 115 programmes were left for assessment against the above criteria. The two authors meticulously reviewed each programme and examined the course descriptions. Uncertain cases were resolved through discussion until agreement was reached. Following rigorous evaluation, 16 programmes (see Table 1 and Supplementary Material S1) and 82 course descriptions (Supplementary Material S2) were included in the final sample based on their relevance.

After selecting programmes and courses, we started analysing the data, with the stages illustrated in Figure 2. To address the state-of-the-art ESD programmes in Europe (RQ1), the first and second authors used a step-by-step analysis procedure. Using Microsoft Excel, a descriptive analysis was conducted to examine the geographical distribution of the universities offering ESD programmes, aiming to understand regional trends. This step was crucial in identifying the concentration and spread of these programmes across different parts of Europe. In addition, the study modes (full-time, part-time or both) and methods of delivery (on campus, online, blended or two options) were analysed to assess the accessibility of the programmes and provide insights into how flexible and adaptable the programmes are to different student needs. To visualise the geographical distribution of the programmes and enhance the interpretation of regional trends, Google Data Studio was used.

To answer RQ2 about the aspects being integrated into the ESD programmes, the first and the second authors individually read all available course descriptions on the university websites. Initially, 120 courses from 16 master’s programmes were reviewed. Out of these, 82 courses were selected based on the following exclusion criteria:

• courses not relevant to education and sustainability;

• internship courses; and

• research methodology courses, as these do not reflect the core pillars of sustainability.

Following this, reflexive thematic analysis, as described by Braun and Clarke (2019), was used to identify, analyse and report patterns (themes) within the data. The course analysis process began with an initial conversation to determine significant topics and sub-themes. To find out the main themes and sub-themes, we conducted a qualitative content analysis procedure (Elo and Kyngäs, 2008) of the 82 course descriptions. Starting with an inductive approach, the first and second authors reviewed all the descriptions. We then applied open coding, grouping these initial codes into categories that naturally emerged from the data, which reflected various themes found in the course descriptions. A deductive approach was also applied in which, we developed a categorisation matrix based on the framework of sustainability pillars. This matrix guided the analysis by being compared with the open coding schemes. The early themes and sub-themes were developed iteratively. Four major themes and seven sub-themes were recognised. The courses were classified into subthemes individually by two authors. As one course may cover several sub-themes, each course was decided to be categorised into no more than three sub-themes. We then cross-checked the classifications. Table 2 represents all the themes and sub-themes of the courses. The course was reviewed again for courses where consensus could not initially be reached. Two authors kept reorganising the course categories until a significant Cohen’s Kappa was established, which produced a value of 0.8 when computed with SPSS version 29 to establish categorical reliability. Significant agreement is shown by this score, which is appropriate for categorical data (Landis and Koch, 1977).

To answer RQ3 about the associations among the themes, we used Gephi to conduct network analysis. According to Cherven (2013), Gephi is offered as an open-source graph and network analysis software that uses a three-dimensional render engine for real-time network visualisation and exploration. Gephi allows dynamic network visualisation, which enables users to analyse network topology transitions and content propagation over time (Cherven, 2013). We imported the co-occurrence matrix into Gephi for the visual representation of each node (sub-theme) and edge (co-occurrence) in a network graph. The co-occurrence matrix identified how frequently pairs of sub-themes appeared together within the same course and programme. To determine the strength of theme co-occurrences, we adopted a percentile-based classification (Wasserman and Faust, 1994), where co-occurrence weights were divided into strong (top 25%), moderate (25%–75%) and weak (bottom 25%) categories. While this approach follows common network analysis procedures, we acknowledge that such thresholding involves a degree of subjectivity. To mitigate bias, consistent criteria across the data set were applied among all researchers. Using the significant computational power provided by Gephi’s analytics functions, we computed a series of network metrics, including measures for centrality, to identify the most important sub-themes that shape the field of ESD (Bastian et al., 2009). To test the robustness of the network structure, a minimal sensitivity check was conducted by varying the percentile thresholds used to classify tie strength (e.g. top 20% and top 30%). The identity of the strongest co-occurrence pairs (T2A–T2B; T3A–T3B) and the highest central node (T3A) remained consistent, which indicates that the observed network patterns are stable.

This data shows the distribution of ESD programmes across various European countries. As illustrated in Figure 3, the UK leads in the number of ESD programmes, offering six programmes (f = 6). Sweden follows with four programmes (f = 4). Ireland has two programmes (f = 2), while Finland, Italy, Norway and Malta each have one programme (f = 1).

The examined ESD master programmes offer a wide range of study modes and methods of delivery. Regarding study modes, the majority of the programmes are offered as “Full-time” programmes (13/16). In terms of methods of delivery, “On campus” delivery is the most common, with nine programmes delivered in this way. Table 3 outlines the number of study modes and methods of delivery for the analysed programmes.

The examined ESD programmes in Europe aim to equip graduates with diverse and versatile skills for various career paths, as evidenced by the career outcomes associated with each programme (Figure 4). Only a small percentage (13%) lay emphasis on strictly academic careers, while 25% are strictly corporate in their orientation and 63% are designed to prepare graduates for both.

Breaking this down in terms of academic orientation, 50% have a strong emphasis on research and advanced studies that will prepare the graduate for academic research and possibly doctoral studies. For example, Programme A5 states this: “Alternatively, students may continue to conduct research leading to a doctoral degree”. Moreover, the theme of educational roles and support services is the most extensive area, with 75% of the programmes that train students for teaching and academic development roles in both formal and informal learning environments. Programme A4 illustrates this, in that it states, “Their work ranges from formal education through to non-formal education, such as in education campaigns and advocacy efforts”.

In the corporate sector, 50% of the programmes relate to sustainability leadership and management roles. These programmes prepare the graduates for various organisations and their managements that look towards focusing on sustainability, including non-governmental organisations. As written in Programme A8: “The range of opportunities for developing a career in this area of practice is growing. Career opportunities include Sustainability Manager, Communications Officer, Project Manager, Environmental Compliance Officer”. Another related job dimension is community and social development, which occurs as a major theme in 25% of the programmes with an emphasis on the demand for ESD graduates to take up such a role that works with community initiatives and social development projects. Global development and policymaking, focusing on international sustainability initiatives and policy-making, were both specific to 37.5% of the programmes. Programme A15 mentions that policy analysts, policymakers and practitioners are involved in this area. Finally, environmental and outdoor education is targeted within 37.5% of programmes, showing job opportunities for graduates in the areas of conservation, environmental education and other connected fields. A specific example is Programme A9, which states: “Graduates are employed worldwide in all aspects of the Outdoor Environmental and Sustainability Education sector, such as in residential outdoor education centres, wilderness expeditions, and environmental education programs”.

The data analysis demonstrates that the master’s programmes in ESD provided by 16 universities across Europe incorporate a wide range of sustainability issues, each critically examining distinct aspects of SD. Table 4 shows the frequency and percentage of these themes in the ESD curricula.

Firstly, 38% of the programmes and 8% of the courses cover the issue of Understanding and Integrating Sustainability in Education, which provides fundamental knowledge. As an example, the course “An Introduction to Sustainability Education” offered by Programme A2 explores key sustainability themes and concepts, introducing values, ethics and competencies associated with ESD.

Cultural Values, Ethics and Citizenship, the most common theme, is covered in 17% of the courses and 69% of the programmes. The courses in this sub-theme focus on helping students become more conscious of culture and ethics. For instance, the course “Citizenship, Social Values and Ethics in Sustainability Education” (Programme A1) encourages students to engage with ethical analyses surrounding social sustainability issues and to consider concepts such as “powerful knowledge” and “democratic subjectification” in the context of ESD.

In addition, 17% of the courses and 63% of the programmes also include Environmental and place-based education, which combines environmental education with an emphasis on regional settings and ecosystems. For instance, the course “Experiential Learning, Landscape and Place” (Programme A14) underlines the importance of “place” in ESD, grounding learning in local histories, environments and cultures, and encouraging students to explore sustainability through tangible interactions with their surroundings.

With a focus on ecosystems and the natural sciences, Environmental sustainability is covered in 14% of the courses and 63% of the programmes. Programme A11 offers “Climate Change Here and Now”, which covers climate change science fundamentals, such as carbon footprints, mitigation and adaptation strategies. The course explores the link between knowledge, attitudes, values and climate action, aiming to build students’ action competence.

The theme of Leadership, policies and governance for sustainability is present in 8% of the courses and 50% of the programmes. As an example, in Programme A7, “Governance for Sustainability” provides an in-depth analysis of governance frameworks, examining how institutional support can enable SD. This course highlights governance as a critical component in achieving sustainability through effective policy formation.

The theme of Sustainability in the digitalised age and future thinking appears in 5% of the courses and 31% of the programmes, and it explores the interface between digital technology and sustainability. For instance, Programme A3 provides “Education in a Time of Social and Technological Change”, a course that looks at how digitalisation creates both challenges and opportunities in education. This course critically examines the impact of digital transformation on sustainability, focusing on how sociotechnical changes influence educators and learning environments.

A notable level of interdisciplinarity is a feature of ESD programmes throughout Europe. Among the 16 programmes, 11 offer a broad spectrum of interdisciplinarity (integrating three or more sub-themes within their curricula), while five concentrate on specific issues. Seven sub-themes from various ESD courses and programmes are visualised in Figure 5 to show how they are related. The sub-themes in the graphs are represented by each node, and the associations between those sub-themes are shown by the edges.

Degree centrality counts a node’s direct connections, indicating its immediate influence in the network, and a higher degree of centrality means more direct connections and greater potential impact (Yang et al., 2014). With a weight of 36 (w = 36) and a central position in the visualisation, the critical role of theme T3A Cultural values, ethics and citizenship is highlighted in the network graph of ESD.

The analysis of the ESD programmes reveals that 11 out of the 16 programmes are highly interdisciplinary, integrating three or more sub-themes within their curricula. These programmes demonstrate a comprehensive approach by including a diverse range of themes. For example, Programme A3 incorporates five sub-themes in their courses, including T2A, T2B, T3A, T3B and T4A. In contrast, 5 out of 16 programmes focus on specialised themes, providing in-depth knowledge in specific areas of sustainability. For instance, Programme A5 focuses exclusively on T2B (environmental and place-based education).

Data analysis reveals some SD issues that are frequently studied together while also highlighting those that are often neglected. For this systematic understanding of ESD themes and their relations across courses, we applied the principles of social network analysis as outlined (Wasserman and Faust, 1994). In this approach, links are graded as strong, moderate or weak according to co-occurrence weights using a percentile-based method. Strong connections are those within the top 25% of weights, moderate connections are between the 25th and 75th percentiles, and weak connections are in the lowest 25%. Following this, thresholds for co-occurrence weights are defined as strong (W ≥ 8), moderate (3 < W < 8) and weak (W ≤ 3). In network analysis, edge weights indicate the intensity, frequency, capacity or strength of relations between nodes, such as people or organisations (Wasserman and Faust, 1994). Table 5 represents the co-occurrence of subthemes as their weights.

By categorising the connections as strong, moderate or weak based on their co-occurrence weights, we can see how frequently different themes are integrated and studied together in ESD courses. The analysis shows that the strongest association is the T2A (environmental sustainability) and T2B (environmental and place-based education), with a weight of 11, indicating these themes from the environmental pillar are highly integrated within ESD courses. For example, the course “Environment, Nature and Sustainable Development in an Educational Perspective” from programme A1 demonstrates that a fundamental understanding of the environment and ecosystems is essential for grasping environmental education. Another notable connection is between T3A (cultural values, ethics and citizenship) and T3B (economic perspectives and global inequality), with a weight of 8. This strong link underscores that the economic pillar is not a stand-alone aspect but is often studied with the social pillar and other cultural and ethical dimensions. For instance, the course “Education for Sustainable Development for Adults, Youth and Community” by Programme A12 shows that promoting active participation and engagement of adults and youth is essential for achieving non-formal education towards sustainability.

Some less frequent interdisciplinary themes involve the combination of different pillars of sustainability, such as environmental and social aspects, which are studied together but much less often. For instance, the connection between T2B (environmental and place-based education) and T3A (cultural values, ethics and citizenship) weights 3. This indicates that while cultural and ethical aspects are included in place-based education, it is not very common. Programme A13’s Ethics and Environmental Economics Development course equips students with a solid grounding in ecological knowledge before exploring ethical theories like consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics.

Sustainability in the digitalised age and future thinking (T4A) and Leadership, policies and governance for sustainability (T4B) present comparatively lower co-occurrence scores with other sub-themes across courses (ranging from 1 to 2). ESD programmes acknowledge these themes, although they are not as strongly integrated as conventional issues. For instance, putting T4B and T2A together illustrates the integration between the training of leadership and governance with the principles of environmental sustainability.

RQ1. What are the main characteristics and key features of master programmes in ESD in Europe?

The dominance of ESD programmes in Western and Northern Europe, particularly in the UK and Sweden, aligns with previous findings that have shown these regions to be high performers in SD education (Cars and West, 2015; Momete and Momete, 2021). Conversely, this study indicates that ESD courses in English are not offered in Central and Eastern Europe. This can be partially due to historical and financial disparities, limiting their capacity to implement ESD comprehensively (Dlouhá et al., 2017), but also due to language barriers. In specific, this study only examined programmes held in English, meaning national programmes from non-English speaking countries were not included.

The studied ESD programmes proved to be versatile in career outcomes, ranging from academic to corporate sector possibilities. The alignment of the ESD programmes with global frameworks such as SDG 4.7 enhances the relevance of the programmes across multiple career pathways (see e.g. Shulla et al., 2020). For students, the benefit of the programmes keeping multiple career pathways open is that they may enable a more holistic approach to ESD issues. On the other hand, it may also indicate that in the education sector per se there is not yet a wide range of roles to which graduates of ESD programmes are trained for. To better prepare students for careers aligned with the education sector, there may be a need for a more robust integration of the ESD programmes into educational standards and policies (see also Singer-Brodowski et al., 2019).

RQ2. What specific sustainability themes do the master programmes in ESD courses include?

The three pillars of sustainability are represented in the courses across 16 programmes, with a dominance of environmental and social sustainability. The dominance of environmental sustainability among all pillars reflects ESD’s historical roots in environmental education. Scholars like Sterling (2010) have highlighted that early conceptualisations of ESD were primarily environment-focused, aiming to address ecological degradation and climate change. In contrast, economic sustainability, although mentioned in some course descriptions, tends to play a minor role and lacks focus. This finding is in line with previous studies that have noted that while economic sustainability is integral to the three-pillar model (environmental, economic, social), it is often less emphasised in ESD (Mochizuki and Fadeeva, 2010). This neglect may be attributed to the complexity of teaching economic systems and the challenges of addressing systemic inequality through education (Mochizuki and Fadeeva, 2010). However, as environmental and societal issues cannot be addressed without taking economic aspects into consideration, ESD programmes should put a meaningful effort into incorporating economic aspects into education programmes. As an example, students should gain a general understanding of effective economic solutions to environmental problems, such as the effect of environmental taxes and carbon-trade schemes.

These master’s programmes in ESD also increasingly incorporate non-traditional aspects of the three pillars, such as governance for sustainability and sustainability in a digitalised age. This fact has been proved by previous studies; for instance, the model demonstrates how ESD can expand beyond traditional environmental, social and economic pillars to include “boundary-crossing competencies” (Bertel et al., 2022, p. 1188). Notably, the integration of digital and governance-related themes in the analysed courses is limited, which indicates a broader misalignment between ESD and emerging global priorities. The COVID-19 crisis highlighted the essential role of digital transformation in higher education (OECD, 2021). As Giannakos et al. (2024) emphasises, the rise of generative AI tools such as ChatGPT is reshaping how knowledge is accessed, produced and evaluated in higher education, raising urgent questions about data ethics, digital literacy and critical thinking – competencies that are highly relevant to sustainability. The lack of emphasis on digital themes may leave students unprepared to address sustainability challenges in their professional careers. To address this problem, higher education institutions are required to rethink curriculum design and pedagogical approaches. Technological tools including virtual reality, gamification, augmented reality, robotics and digital strategies such as virtual exchange and blended learning can be used to enhance educational effectiveness (Trevisan et al., 2023). For instance, virtual reality can immerse students in simulated real-world issues, such as climate change impacts, waste management systems or renewable energy infrastructure (Radianti et al., 2020). Similarly, technologies can reduce pollution, improve energy efficiency and promote renewable energy use, while leading to high energy consumption and e-waste (Al-Emran and Griffy-Brown, 2023). Moving forward, it is crucial for higher education to integrate digital themes into ESD, ensuring that graduates are not only environmentally responsible but also technologically skilled.

RQ3. How do the ESD themes connect in the programmes and courses?

Findings from the study highlight that master’s ESD programmes across Europe incorporate the core pillars of sustainability. This is evident in 11 out of 16 programmes, which integrate themes related to environmental sustainability, social equity and economic perspectives. This approach enables learners to address global sustainability challenges through an interdisciplinary perspective effectively (Lozano et al., 2015), since the “balancing of economic, environmental, and social goals” is essential to achieving SD (Gough, 2018, p.1).

The study results highlight that although themes like sustainability in a digitalised world and governance are being integrated into ESD curricula, their connection to the traditional pillars – environmental, social and economic sustainability – remains limited. For example, digital tools are used to deliver content, but the integration of digitalisation with broader environmental or social sustainability issues is often weak. Similarly, while governance education is introduced, it tends to function independently rather than being embedded into the larger sustainability framework, reducing its overall impact. ESD must also respond to recent societal and technological trends that significantly influence how we teach and learn (Gupta et al., 2020). Digitalisation, while enhancing engagement, must be closely linked with environmental and social content to help students understand how technology can contribute to sustainable practices (Cebrián et al., 2020). Similarly, when integrated more effectively with traditional pillars, governance education can provide students with a more comprehensive understanding of how leadership and policy can drive environmental and economic sustainability efforts (Mulà et al., 2017).

The curricula in European programmes cover both scientific knowledge and ethical perspectives on ESD. This helps promote the holistic ESD, since programmes that dominantly focus on scientific knowledge without integrating ethical reflection and practical implementation risk creating graduates who are technically proficient but disconnected from the broader moral and social contexts in which they will work. Conversely, programmes that focus solely on ethical education without providing the necessary scientific grounding and practical skills may produce graduates who are passionate about sustainability but lack the ability to implement solutions effectively (Gough, 2018; Tolppanen et al., 2022). Theme 3A – the central theme in ESD suggests a focus on ethical consciousness as well as practical citizenship actions or participatory activities that engage students in real-world problem-solving. Theme 3A is closely connected with sustainability pillars. For example, the theme of citizenship (3A) integrates with the environmental theme (2A) to form a concept of “environmental citizenship”. Schild (2016, p. 19) highlights that environmental citizenship is defined by a commitment to the “civic republican tradition and civic environmentalism”, wherein individuals engage in collective efforts towards the “common good” through sustainable practices. By integrating these concepts into ESD curricula, educators aim to nurture students’ role as agents of collective environmental responsibility. This type of citizenship is cultivated through local engagement, enabling students to grapple with complex environmental policies within their immediate surroundings that incorporate “conceptions of community, environment, legal and institutional knowledge, and pluralistic values” (Chan, 2023, p. 121). This points to a holistic understanding of sustainability that encompasses both the external systems they interact with and their internal motivations and values (Nanjundaswamy et al., 2021), and the necessity of integrating social justice frameworks into ESD to ensure students grasp sustainability’s ethical dimensions (Bertel et al., 2022).

To summarise, this study investigated the content and multidisciplinary nature of ESD master’s programmes across Europe, focusing on what they incorporate and try to communicate to students, as well as their career outcomes, objectives and course content. The findings underscore the programmes’ interdisciplinary nature, with a significant emphasis on societal aspects. The analysis also shows that the strongest associations are within the environmental pillars, while social and economic sustainability are often tied to cultural and global dimensions. Notably, emergent areas such as ESD in the digital era and ESD governance are less taken into the curricula, less integrated with sustainability pillars and frequently disregarded. This study contributes to the literature on ESD integration in higher education by identifying the central focus (sociocultural topics), most connected subjects (environmental sustainability and place-based education), as well as less frequent interplay (governance with three pillars) in English- medium ESD programmes provided in European institutions.

The findings of the study have implications for further research, policy development and curriculum development. Regarding developing curriculum, in order for students to contribute to inclusive and equitable solutions, instructors must design curricula that aid in their understanding of the connections between social justice, economic injustice and sustainability. Planning for education should include the needs of the local community as well as the socioeconomic and cultural background of each nation (Heleta and Bagus, 2021). Besides, the results also show that, despite their growing significance, the linkage between sustainability and a digitalised future and governance is still underrepresented in ESD initiatives. Curriculum development should give future-focused thinking, digital skills and sustainable leadership top priority to close this gap. The weak connections between the digitalised future, policy and governance and other pillars of sustainability pave the way for significant improvements in the curriculum of ESD programmes. Embedding ethical and cultural considerations into leadership and governance courses can ensure that potential future leaders are equipped with the necessary skills for ethical decision-making and cultural sensitivity.

Policymakers should support financing, materials and legislative frameworks that promote cross-sectoral and multidisciplinary cooperation in ESD initiatives. Initiatives that promote collaborations among academic institutions, governmental organisations and the commercial sector to provide students exposure to policymaking and real-world leadership skills might be supported by legislation.

Innovative educational approaches that successfully incorporate cultural, economic and environmental sustainability into education should be the subject of future empirical study. Examining how these integrated curricula affect student performance might provide useful strategies for teaching sustainability. Meanwhile, other researchers could use triangulation to map curricular design with evidence of student performance and institutional indicators such as rankings; thereby enhancing the connection between curricular design and sustainability outcomes. Furthermore, considering how governance and digital technology might improve ESD may provide fresh insights into how to better prepare students for challenges in the future. This paper calls for further empirical studies into the efficacy of transdisciplinary curricula in ESD programmes. Studies could focus on how incorporating social, economic and environmental sustainability into education influences student performance and involvement as active citizens. Researchers should also investigate the extent to which these programmes have transformative impacts beyond students’ insights, to have far-reaching influence on their attitudes, responsibilities and behaviours. This study acknowledges a limitation that the 16 programmes in our geographic breakdown should not be used to draw conclusions about regional differences. Instead, we aim to provide a descriptive mapping. Given the small sample size, these patterns should not be overgeneralised. Future research should broaden the programme pool to include local, non-English ESD programmes in other countries in Europe, which enables a more comprehensive and comparative analysis of regional ESD adoption patterns. Future research could also extend the present framework by explicitly integrating the circular economy paradigm to explore how ESD master’s curricula connect sustainability learning outcomes with circular design, waste minimisation and regenerative economic models. While this study focuses on master’s-level programmes, future research could expand to include bachelor-level curricula to enable a systematic cross-level comparison of ESD design and learning outcomes. The choice of thresholds and the qualitative content of course descriptions can shape perceived centrality and connectivity. Thus, while the results offer meaningful patterns, they should be viewed as indicative rather than definitive. Future research could expand the data sample and incorporate mixed-method validation (e.g. expert review or student feedback) to further substantiate the robustness of theme connections. In addition, while this study focused on the thematic composition and interdisciplinary nature of ESD-related master’s programmes across Europe, future research could further enrich this field by incorporating multivariate methods to test relationships between institutional characteristics (e.g. global ranking, funding), curriculum structure and actual student outcomes. It would offer a broader understanding of external factors shaping pedagogical strategies within ESD programmes.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the editors and reviewers for their insightful comments and constructive feedback, which greatly improved this paper.

The supplementary material for this article can be found online.