Applying circular economy strategies to the rehabilitation of Mediterranean rural housing: evidence from three case studies in Málaga, Spain Open Access

Over the last decade, the circular economy (CE) has consolidated itself as a transformative paradigm in urban planning and construction, offering alternatives to reduce resource consumption and emissions associated with the life cycle of buildings (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017; Kirchherr et al., 2018). The construction sector accounts for around 40% of CO₂ emissions and 36% of energy consumption in the European Union, making it a priority area for the transition towards more sustainable models (UNEP, 2022; European Commission, 2021). This challenge is not confined to urban centres: the sustainability of cities depends on their interaction with the rural environments that supply them and form their hinterland or sphere of influence. As Bai et al. (2016) argue, urban-rural systems must be addressed in an integrated manner to achieve resilient cities and sustainable communities. In this context, rehabilitation is one of the most effective strategies for prolonging building life, reducing construction and demolition waste (C&DW), and decreasing the demand for virgin raw materials (Pomponi and Moncaster, 2017). The international literature converges in noting that circular rehabilitation not only mitigates environmental impacts, but also reinforces cultural and social values by preserving traditional architectural typologies and revitalising declining communities (Foster, 2020; Gravagnuolo et al., 2019).

Academic debate has highlighted the adaptive reuse of heritage as a key avenue for applying CE principles in historic built environments (Foster and Kreinin, 2020; Bosone et al., 2021). Evidence shows that strategies such as the reuse of original materials, the integration of local resources and the use of second-hand elements can reconcile heritage conservation with environmental sustainability. However, this research field faces a methodological gap: the absence of standardised tools for comparatively assessing impacts in cultural rehabilitation projects, which hinders the extraction of transferable lessons across national contexts (Nocca and Angrisano, 2022). Despite advances in frameworks such as Level(s) and multi-life cycle assessment methodologies (Costantino et al., 2023), a gap persists between conceptual approaches and their practical application in small and medium-scale projects.

In Europe, multiple studies have focused on regeneration projects in Italy, France and Central Europe (Gravagnuolo et al., 2021; Dabbene et al., 2024; Tira and Türkoğlu, 2023), but there is a clear deficit of applied cases in Spain and the broader Mediterranean. Most works published in indexed journals are limited to descriptive studies of vernacular architecture or to local experiences without systematic comparative analysis (Gómez-Patrocinio and Villacampa Crespo, 2022). This lack of quantified evidence prevents a robust demonstration of the replicable potential of circular interventions to stimulate local economies and curb rural depopulation. Accordingly, the gap most frequently highlighted in the literature is the absence of empirical studies in Spanish and Mediterranean rural contexts, the very void this article seeks to fill (Alonso and Pozas, 2024; Hernández-Ramírez et al., 2022).

While the lack of empirical studies in Spanish and Mediterranean rural contexts has been acknowledged in recent literature, this gap is not merely geographical. From a theoretical perspective, the absence of applied evidence in these settings limits the validation and refinement of CE frameworks largely developed in urban, industrial, or Northern European contexts. From a practical standpoint, it constrains the capacity of policymakers and practitioners to assess whether circular strategies can be transferred to small-scale, heritage-sensitive rural environments characterised by vernacular construction, limited financial resources and distinct market dynamics. As a result, the contribution of circular rehabilitation to rural revitalisation, heritage value creation and market differentiation remains underexplored and insufficiently theorised. Clarifying this issue is therefore necessary to assess whether CE models retain explanatory and operational validity beyond their dominant urban applications.

This study aims to address the lack of integrated empirical evidence on the application of CE methodologies in rural residential rehabilitation within Mediterranean contexts, specifically the province of Málaga. The literature has identified a deficit in Spain and the broader Mediterranean region (Bosone et al., 2021; Nocca and Angrisano, 2022), particularly regarding: (1) the practical operationalisation of circular strategies in historic and vernacular buildings; (2) the integrated assessment of environmental, cultural and socio-economic impacts and (3) the articulation of circular interventions with market demand, including acceptance and willingness to pay.

By examining three case studies and incorporating in-depth interviews with key market actors, the study seeks to critically analyse how circular methodologies are implemented, evaluated and valued within rural heritage settings.

In light of this overarching objective, the article addresses the following research questions (RQ) (RQ1) Which circular methodologies and strategies (e.g. adaptive reuse, selective deconstruction, material banks, design for disassembly): are operationally viable in the rehabilitation of Mediterranean rural houses and with what results? (RQ2) How do clients and estate agents appraise these strategies in terms of heritage authenticity, efficiency, perceived market value and willingness to pay? (RQ3) To what extent do the outcomes of the Málaga cases advance and nuance existing international frameworks on circular heritage rehabilitation, particularly regarding integrated assessment approaches and rural applicability? These RQs guide the cross-analysis between review, cases and interviews, enabling us to respond to the identified gap and derive theoretical and practical implications.

The contribution of this work goes beyond providing additional evidence from cases in Southern Europe. By combining detailed case-based performance indicators with market-oriented qualitative evidence, the study proposes an integrated analytical approach that connects CE theory, heritage rehabilitation practice and rural property market dynamics. In doing so, it contributes to ongoing debates on the transferability of circular frameworks to non-urban contexts and on the role of heritage-driven circularity in rural socio-economic revitalisation, a concern increasingly highlighted in discussions on European circular transitions and territorial sustainability (Fratini et al., 2019).

Empirically, the study documents the application of CE strategies in three rural housing rehabilitation projects in the province of Málaga, providing place-based evidence in a field largely dominated by examples from Northern and Central Europe. It further examines the cultural and economic implications of these interventions, particularly their capacity to stimulate rural housing markets and contribute to local revitalisation processes.

The article is structured into five sections. Following this introduction, a literature review presents the main conceptual and methodological frameworks of CE in heritage rehabilitation. The three case studies in Málaga are then described, detailing the construction techniques employed and the circular strategies applied. Next, we present the results of qualitative interviews with key actors in the rural property market, integrating the social and economic dimension. Finally, we present the conclusions and avenues for future research, stressing the need to expand the empirical evidence in the Mediterranean context.

The CE framework applied to the built environment combines principles of reduction, reuse and recycling with specific strategies to extend building service life. Authors such as Foster (2020) and Gravagnuolo et al. (2019) underscore that adaptive rehabilitation is an essential tool for reducing environmental impacts vis-à-vis demolition and new construction. Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is the most established instrument to demonstrate the environmental advantages of conservation, by quantifying savings in greenhouse-gas emissions and resource consumption (Costantino et al., 2023). However, recent studies call for a multidimensional approach that also integrates social and cultural variables (Nocca and Angrisano, 2022), given that the value of heritage exceeds purely energy and material aspects. This view converges with the emerging literature on urban-rural metabolism, which posits that circular practices in rural areas sustain not only local ecosystems but also the resilience of interconnected cities (Ragazou et al., 2024).

The development of conceptual frameworks has evolved from resource-efficiency perspectives towards integrated territorial governance approaches. Gravagnuolo et al. (2021) introduce the notion of circular landscape regeneration, linking built heritage and the natural environment within a single metabolic system. In turn, Tira and Türkoğlu (2023) propose circularity-based decision frameworks for historic environments, which consider both community participation and the future adaptability of buildings. These conceptual advances reflect a transition towards a holistic paradigm that understands CE not merely as material management, but as a strategy for sustainable territorial development.

Research identifies a recurrent set of strategies with proven effectiveness in circular rehabilitation projects. Prolonged adaptive reuse extends the service life of historic buildings through interventions that respect original structures, as demonstrated in Italy and Austria (Foster, 2020; Dabbene et al., 2024). Selective deconstruction facilitates the recovery of materials, significantly reducing waste and life-cycle-related emissions (Keena et al., 2023). Likewise, material banks have become key instruments for managing flows of recovered components, with the Material Bank of Porto standing as a reference in the literature (Freitas et al., 2023).

Other strategies, still at an incipient stage, include design for disassembly, which seeks to ensure that elements incorporated in today's rehabilitations can be removed and reused in the future (Costantino et al., 2023). Similarly, the incorporation of collaborative governance systems that integrate public authorities, experts and local communities is identified as a necessary condition to guarantee long-term sustainability (Saez-De-Guinoa et al., 2022). These strategies show that CE in rehabilitation transcends the technical sphere and enters the institutional and social domains.

Recent literature has emphasised the need for integrated evaluation frameworks. Bosone et al. (2021) propose indicators for the ex-post evaluation of adaptive-reuse projects, while Foster and Kreinin (2020) critically review the environmental indicators used in built heritage. Nevertheless, the lack of methodological consensus hinders international comparisons, generating a mosaic of disparate metrics. In response, the European Commission is promoting the adaptation of the Level(s) framework for heritage projects, with the aim of harmonising social, environmental and economic indicators (Nocca and Angrisano, 2022).

Another central methodological debate concerns the scale of analysis. While some studies focus on the individual building, others advocate urban or territorial scales, assessing cumulative impacts in neighbourhoods or cultural landscapes (Gravagnuolo et al., 2021; Costantino et al., 2023). This shift towards a multi-scalar approach responds to the growing awareness that circular rehabilitation affects not only the refurbished asset, but also the socio-economic dynamics of the host community.

Despite international advances, the most frequently noted deficit is the scarcity of empirical cases in Spain and the Mediterranean. Whilst Italy boasts a solid tradition of studies on circular heritage regeneration (Nocca and Angrisano, 2022; Gravagnuolo et al., 2021), in Spain examples are still dispersed and lack systematisation. Studies such as those by Chacón-Ledesma et al. (2022) in Montilla or Gómez-Patrocinio and Villacampa Crespo (2022) on Mudéjar architecture reveal the wealth of local experiences, but do not offer comprehensive evaluations that would allow generalising lessons. Although Spanish scholarship has addressed heritage rehabilitation, energy efficiency improvements and rural development dynamics separately, there is currently no integrated empirical study that simultaneously examines CE strategies, vernacular heritage rehabilitation and market-oriented valuation at the scale of individual rural dwellings.

This shortfall limits the capacity to demonstrate the effectiveness of CE as a driver of rural revitalisation, despite depopulation being one of the country's main socio-economic challenges (Gomide et al., 2024).

Against this backdrop, the present study is positioned as an empirical response to these identified shortcomings. By focusing on rural Mediterranean heritage rehabilitation and integrating environmental indicators with market-oriented qualitative evidence, the research seeks to operationalise and test the conceptual and methodological propositions advanced in the literature.

The social dimension of the CE has traditionally been less explored than its technical and economic components. In a recent review, Pyyhtinen and Zavos (2025) note that the literature tends to prioritise business and instrumental aspects, leaving cultural, political and ethical dimensions in the background. They underline the urgent need for “detailed empirical work on local and everyday practices that concretise the CE”, stressing that circularity is not only built with materials and technical processes, but also through communities, knowledge and cultural dynamics (Pyyhtinen and Zavos, 2025).

In line with this, studies on built heritage show how conservation can strengthen the social fabric and cultural capital. Valdebenito et al. (2021) develops a functional index of heritage degradation that incorporates dimensions such as vulnerability and external risks, recognising that inclusive and participatory rehabilitation helps rebuild collective memory and community belonging. Other works have shown that the preservation of “lived” heritage, such as former factories, vernacular houses or cultural landscapes, can generate spaces for intergenerational exchange, civic education and local pride, reinforcing social cohesion through adaptive reuse processes (Gravagnuolo et al., 2021). These studies suggest that circular interventions, beyond their material impact, become catalysts of identity and community resilience.

Finally, the European CLIC (Circular City Adaptive Reuse) project has consolidated an approach that integrates innovative governance, sustainable business models and transformative cultural practices in heritage rehabilitation. Fusco Girard (2024) describes how adaptive reuse, when oriented towards co-planning, cultural entrepreneurship and local self-management, can become a model of “cultural and economic self-sustainability”. Within this framework, circularity is not confined to a technical strategy, but is articulated territorially through creative, agricultural and community activities that renew the meaning of heritage and link it to local development. Taken together, the literature highlights three interrelated analytical tensions that inform the design of this study. First, while circular strategies such as adaptive reuse, selective deconstruction and design for disassembly are conceptually well developed, their operational viability in small-scale, heritage-sensitive rural contexts remains insufficiently documented. Second, although multidimensional assessment frameworks have been proposed, their empirical application at the level of individual vernacular dwellings is still limited. Third, the market dimension of circular heritage rehabilitation, particularly issues related to perceived value and willingness to pay, remains underexplored.

These gaps provide the analytical foundation for the research questions formulated in the Introduction and justify the adoption of a multiple-case qualitative design combined with market-oriented interviews. In this way, the empirical strategy is explicitly grounded in the theoretical and methodological debates identified in the literature.

An exploratory qualitative design was adopted with a multiple-case logic and source triangulation (Yin, 2018), suitable for understanding complex, situated phenomena, such as circular rehabilitation of residential heritage, and for generating analytical rather than statistical inferences (Kvale, 2007; Braun and Clarke, 2006). This methodological choice responds directly to the gaps identified in the literature review, particularly the need for empirically grounded, context-sensitive analyses capable of integrating environmental performance, heritage values and market perceptions within a single analytical framework. The primary unit of analysis comprised three dwellings rehabilitated under CE principles in the province of Málaga; as a complementary unit of observation, in-depth interviews were conducted with key market actors.

Participants and sampling. We conducted 15 semi-structured interviews with foreign clients and estate agents experienced in this niche, selected through convenience sampling with internal simple randomisation to mitigate selection bias. Inclusion criteria were: (1) recent direct experience with buying, selling or brokering CE-led rehabilitated housing in rural Málaga; (2) willingness to participate in a ∼60-min interview; (3) authorisation for academic use of information under anonymisation. This set-up is consistent with an exploratory study whose aim is interpretive depth rather than statistical representativeness (Kvale, 2007).

The final sample size (n = 15) was determined by the following principles of analytical sufficiency rather than statistical saturation, given the exploratory scope of the study. Interviews were conducted until thematic redundancy was observed in the narratives concerning valuation criteria, circular attributes and market perceptions. Participants included foreign buyers (primarily Belgian and British nationals) and estate agents operating in rural Málaga, thereby ensuring coverage of both demand- and intermediation-side perspectives.

Interviews were semi-structured, guided by a protocol covering: motivations for purchase/sale; valued attributes (material reuse, efficiency, authenticity); perceived barriers and enablers; willingness to pay and perception of market value; and social/territorial effects. All interviews were conducted between November and December 2024. Interviews were conducted in person or via videoconference, depending on participants' availability. All participants provided informed consent prior to participation. Interviews were audio-recorded with permission and subsequently transcribed verbatim for analysis. Where necessary, interviews conducted in English were translated into Spanish for coding consistency. In parallel, the cases were documented with descriptive reports, photographic records and site evidence (recovered materials, construction solutions), generating a triangulated empirical base (cases + interviews + documentation). The interview guide was structured into four thematic blocks: (1) motivations and decision criteria in property transactions; (2) perceptions of circular and heritage-related attributes; (3) economic considerations, including price sensitivity and willingness to pay and (4) perceived territorial and social effects of rehabilitation. The guide was piloted in two preliminary interviews to refine question clarity and sequencing.

Reflexive thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006) was applied, following the phases of familiarisation, open coding, generation and review of emergent themes, definition/naming of themes and integrative interpretation. Coding was carried out inductively (from field data) while remaining open to deductive contrasts with categories arising from the literature (e.g. adaptive reuse, selective deconstruction, material banks, design for disassembly, governance). Triangulation was achieved by cross-checking patterns from interviews with evidence observed in the cases (e.g. effective presence of recovered materials, distributive changes for light/ventilation), seeking convergences and dissonances (negative cases) to strengthen interpretation.

Quality and validity criteria. Credibility and dependability were addressed through: (1) data triangulation (cases, interviews, documentation); (2) audit trail (analytical decisions recorded in memos and code matrices); (3) iterative recoding to check category-scheme stability and (4) thick description in reporting to favour transferability (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Nowell et al., 2017). Given the exploratory scope and sample size, strong-sense “theoretical saturation” was not pursued; the target was analytical coherence and alignment among data, literature and RQs. Reporting aligns with the COREQ (Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research) guideline, including transparency on sampling, script, coding process and quality criteria.

To reinforce methodological transparency and traceability of results, Table 1 presents a synthesis of emergent themes alongside representative verbatim quotes from clients and agents.

Analysis of the narratives revealed emergent trends regarding client preferences. Buyers interviewed coincided in noting that sustainability is an increasingly valued criterion, albeit with cultural nuances. Several Belgian clients expressed a marked orientation towards heritage conservation and reduced environmental impact, reflecting an ecological and heritage sensitivity consistent with prior studies on international demand in rural markets (Mérai et al., 2022). In contrast, other British clients, although favourable to sustainability, adopted a more pragmatic stance, prioritising functionality, modernisation and price. This diversity of discourses suggests that purchase preferences are modulated by cultural and socio-economic factors, opening a differentiated market niche for circular rehabilitation (Çetin et al., 2021).

Another axis emerging from the interviews was the valuation of specific architectural and environmental features. Participants highlighted the reuse of original materials (ceramics, timber, beams), energy efficiency and the integration of ecological solutions such as sustainable gardens or rainwater harvesting systems. These preferences align with a broader trend towards fusing tradition and modernity, whereby the aesthetic value of elements such as high ceilings or ceramic floors is combined with contemporary demands for comfort and efficiency. Client discourse reinforces the idea that circular rehabilitation not only conserves, but also re-signifies heritage by adapting it to current expectations (Gravagnuolo et al., 2021).

The moderate cost range (320–480 €/m²) and circularity surcharge (≈7–10%) observed in the three cases align with agents' narratives describing circular rehabilitation as a market differentiator with acceptable price premiums. This correspondence between quantified costs and perceived value reinforces the economic viability of circular approaches in rural housing rehabilitation.

From the perspective of the estate agents interviewed, convergent narratives emerged on the impact of these practices in the rural market. Most pointed out that dwellings rehabilitated under CE principles are attracting growing interest among environmentally conscious foreign and domestic buyers, configuring a client profile that conceives housing not only as an asset, but as an ethical and responsible investment (Foster, 2020). They also stressed that such interventions help stimulate the local economy, both through direct job creation in construction and through indirect effects in rural tourism and commerce. These perceptions align with research linking sustainable heritage rehabilitation with processes of territorial revitalisation and repopulation (Gravagnuolo et al., 2021).

In sum, findings from the in-depth interviews confirm that CE in rural housing rehabilitation is generating new market dynamics characterised by demand valuing sustainability, architectural authenticity and energy efficiency. Although the sample is modest, as is typical of an exploratory approach, the discourses gathered evidence of a paradigm shift in the perception of property value in rural settings: from a model centred exclusively on price and location towards one that incorporates environmental, cultural and social dimensions. This qualitative analysis thus provides a first approximation to how circularity translates into consumption practices and market strategies in the Mediterranean context.

Within this research, three circular rehabilitation interventions of rural dwellings in the province of Málaga were documented: Casa Ladera and Casa Hornacina, both in the municipality of Colmenar, and Casa Don Carlos, in Archidona. Although the three projects share the same approach based on the principles of the CE, their initial conditions and the strategies applied differ according to conservation state and construction typology.

Casa Hornacina is an example of a modest dwelling with thick masonry walls and low ceilings, whose rehabilitation focused on preserving the traditional essence and carrying out selective improvements to optimise liveability. Casa Don Carlos, by contrast, represents a manor-type dwelling of larger dimensions and good prior conservation, where circular strategies were more closely linked to the restoration of elements and the modernisation of services, without major structural transformations.

Finally, Casa Ladera stands out as the most complex and paradigmatic intervention, as the property had suffered a fire that seriously affected its structure and finishes. Precisely due to the magnitude of the challenge and the diversity of solutions implemented, this article develops the case of Casa Ladera in detail, while the other two are discussed contextually.

To offer an initial comparative view, Table 2 summarises the main characteristics of the three rehabilitated houses considered in this study.

Casa Ladera, located in the urban fabric of Colmenar, is a traditional Andalusian house that, prior to intervention, presented an advanced state of deterioration as a result of a fire. The incident had severely damaged the roof, timber beams, electrical and plumbing services, as well as the floors and part of the interior finishes. Despite this, the masonry walls, built with stone and lime mortar, withstood the fire without compromising the structural stability of the building.

The intervention was conceived under a minimum-replacement approach, prioritising the consolidation and reuse of original elements whenever possible. This criterion, consistent with CE principles, reduced the generation of rubble and preserved the architectural authenticity of the dwelling. The project not only sought to restore habitability, but also to revalue the property as an example of integration between sustainability, heritage conservation and contemporary functionality.

The first step was an exhaustive structural check. The foundations were verified and the load-bearing walls inspected. Although superficially blackened by the fire, they retained their strength. Demolition was therefore discarded and instead cleaning and consolidation techniques were applied.

The timber roof beams showed surface charring. Rather than replacing them with new members, they were reinforced with protective treatments and complementary structural elements to guarantee long-term stability. This procedure preserved the original rustic appearance and avoided the removal of a valuable material.

The roof was reassembled using the same clay tiles that could be recovered, completing the remainder with antique pieces purchased in second-hand markets. This decision maintained the traditional image of the property whilst ensuring roof durability (Figure 1).

The fire had destroyed virtually all electrical and plumbing services. Systems were completely renewed, but following a sustainability criterion: recoverable metal components (such as copper pipe runs) were reused and low-impact conduits were incorporated. Water-efficiency solutions were added, such as rainwater harvesting systems integrated into the patio irrigation network.

For electricity, LED luminaires and cable with eco-friendly insulation were installed, thereby optimising energy consumption and complying with current regulations without losing the dwelling's original aesthetic.

The masonry walls, blackened by smoke, were cleaned using gentle blasting techniques and treated with lime mortars. This material, traditional in the area, enabled the walls to regain their breathability, preventing condensation and prolonging durability. Moreover, the choice of lime mortar aligns with sustainable rehabilitation practices that favour compatibility with original materials.

In zones where structural damp was detected, ventilation and drainage treatments were applied, accompanied by selective replacement of damaged pieces. This intervention was key to guaranteeing long-term stability and liveability.

The original floors had been almost entirely destroyed. Instead of installing new industrial pavements, antique ceramic pieces acquired from antique dealers and second-hand markets were recovered. These pieces were restored and relaid, providing aesthetic continuity with the house's historical character.

In areas where recovery was not possible, artisanal fired-clay tiles from local production were installed, thus reducing transport footprint and ensuring stylistic coherence (Figure 2).

One of the most significant decisions was the redistribution of interior spaces to improve lovability. In the living room, non-essential partitions were removed to favour the entry of natural light and cross-ventilation. In this way, the need for artificial lighting and mechanical conditioning was reduced, optimising thermal comfort passively.

In the kitchen, an opening was created to connect with the living room, generating a larger and more functional space. The disposition was adapted to contemporary needs whilst retaining traditional elements such as iron doors and grilles, which were restored and relocated (Figure 3).

Decoration followed the principle of circularity. Doors, windows and original furniture that had survived the fire were restored, and other items were acquired in second-hand shops and antique dealers. These pieces were repaired and adapted to the interior design, achieving a rustic-contemporary style.

The result is an atmosphere where the history of the house coexists with modern comfort. Notable examples include solid wood doors refurbished as tables and antique chairs reupholstered to give the spaces a unique character (Figure 4).

The patio was transformed into a key space for liveability and sustainability. A fountain was installed using a restored old bathtub (Figure 5), integrated as both a decorative and functional element. The patio paving was covered with second-hand ceramic tiles, harmonising with the interiors.

Landscaping incorporated low-maintenance native species adapted to the Mediterranean climate, reducing irrigation needs. A drip-irrigation system connected to rainwater harvesting was integrated. The patio thus became a leisure space that is sustainable and coherent with CE values.

The rehabilitation of Casa Ladera enabled the deployment of a set of circularity strategies spanning the entire construction process and materialised in different phases of the intervention. Original structural elements such as timber beams and masonry walls were reused and consolidated, avoiding replacement; second-hand materials, including tiles, decorative pieces and furniture, were recovered, restored and re-positioned; local and compatible materials, such as lime mortars and artisanal ceramics, were prioritised, ensuring stylistic coherence and sustainability; and an interior design oriented towards passive energy efficiency was adopted, enhancing natural light and cross-ventilation to reduce reliance on artificial systems.

This was complemented by the restoration and reuse of antique furniture, as well as the landscape integration of the patio with native species and water-saving systems, which together balanced contemporary functionality with heritage conservation. Taken together, these strategies demonstrate that it is possible to extend the service life of a heavily damaged property while preserving its architectural and cultural identity and adapting it to current needs for comfort and sustainability.

Beyond the particularities of each intervention, Table 3 summarises transversally the principal CE strategies applied in the three dwellings, allowing similarities and differences to be visualised.

To understand how the CE materialises in the rehabilitation of rural houses in Málaga, we chose a qualitative methodological design. The selected technique comprised semi-structured in-depth interviews with 15 key actors: foreign clients and estate agents with experience in marketing this type of property. This approach is particularly suitable for exploring perceptions, values and motivations that cannot be captured through standardised questionnaires (Kvale, 2007). The interviews were conducted between November and December 2024, with an average duration of 60 min, and were subsequently transcribed and subjected to thematic analysis following Braun and Clarke (2006).

This section integrates evidence from the three case studies and the in-depth interviews in order to provide a cross-case and cross-data interpretation of CE outcomes in rural heritage rehabilitation. Quantitative indicators derived from the cases are analysed in conjunction with qualitative insights from clients and estate agents, allowing us to examine how material and spatial circular strategies translate into environmental performance, perceived value and market-related outcomes.

The quantitative indicators presented in Table 4 provide a comparative overview of the environmental, functional and economic performance achieved in the three rehabilitation projects. Together, they demonstrate how CE principles can be operationalised in rural heritage contexts through measurable improvements in material reuse, embodied carbon reduction and energy efficiency.

A cross-reading of the qualitative factors identified in Table 2 and the quantitative KPIs reported in Table 4 reveals a consistent pattern across the three cases. Strategies related to the reuse of structural elements and finishes are reflected in high percentages of material reuse and substantial reductions in embodied carbon. Likewise, spatial optimisation measures aimed at enhancing natural light and ventilation correspond to improvements in passive design indicators and reduced post-works operational energy demand. This alignment suggests that the qualitative attributes emphasised in the case narratives are directly translated into measurable environmental and functional outcomes.

Casa Ladera represents a balanced application of circular strategies under complex conditions. Approximately 55% of its structural elements and 95% of finishes and furniture were reused, avoiding about 2 tonnes of demolition waste and an estimated 400–500 kgCO₂e/m² of embodied carbon. The rehabilitation reduced operational energy demand to 80–100 kWh/m²·year and achieved a 20–30% increase in daylight factor. The total cost of 480 €/m² included a surcharge of roughly 10% associated with selective deconstruction and the reintegration of salvaged materials. These data suggest that even in severely damaged buildings, circular rehabilitation can reach high reuse rates without compromising functionality or comfort.

Casa Hornacina achieved the highest proportion of structural reuse (75%) and maintained 90% reuse of finishes and furnishings. Although its avoided demolition waste (1 tonne) and embodied carbon savings (350–450 kgCO₂e/m²) were slightly lower than those of the other cases, it reached the lowest operational energy range (70–90 kWh/m²·year), evidencing the efficiency of passive improvements such as optimised ventilation and the creation of a small patio pool using surplus materials. The daylight performance increased by approximately 15%, and the cost remained contained at 380 €/m², with an 8% surcharge attributed to circular design. The case demonstrates that substantial reuse and energy optimisation can be achieved in small-scale rural dwellings through minimal yet targeted interventions.

Casa Don Carlos stands out for its extensive integration of circular design within a larger and better-preserved building. It reached 85% reuse of structural elements and 90% reuse of finishes/furniture, resulting in the avoidance of 1.5 tonnes of demolition waste and the highest embodied carbon reduction (500–600 kgCO₂e/m²). Despite slightly higher post-works operational energy (90–110 kWh/m²·year), daylight availability improved by 25%, reflecting the benefits of spatial redistribution. Notably, the project achieved the lowest total cost (320 €/m²) and smallest circularity surcharge (≈7%), suggesting that economies of scale and good prior conditions enhance cost-effectiveness in circular rehabilitation.

Overall, the KPIs confirm that high levels of material reuse correlate with significant reductions in embodied carbon and waste generation. Differences among the three dwellings reflect varying initial conditions and design decisions rather than constraints of the circular model itself. In all cases, improved passive performance was achieved through low-tech solutions – redistribution of openings, increased natural lighting and the use of breathable lime mortars – illustrating the compatibility of vernacular construction with contemporary sustainability objectives. The moderate surcharges (7–10%) show that circularity can be economically viable even in small heritage projects, strengthening the argument for its broader adoption in Mediterranean rural rehabilitation.

Interview data provide an interpretive layer that helps contextualise and validate the case-based indicators. For instance, interviewees' emphasis on heritage authenticity and material reuse aligns with the high levels of finish and furniture reuse observed across cases (90–95%). Similarly, estate agents' narratives regarding improved market differentiation and buyer interest correspond with the moderate circularity surcharges (7–10%) reported in the KPIs, suggesting that additional costs associated with circular strategies are perceived as acceptable when linked to tangible heritage and sustainability attributes.

Overall, the integrated analysis across cases and data sources indicates that CE strategies in rural heritage rehabilitation generate mutually reinforcing environmental, functional and market outcomes. Differences among cases are primarily attributable to initial building conditions rather than to limitations of the circular approach itself. The convergence between quantitative indicators and qualitative perceptions strengthens the robustness of the findings and supports their relevance for both theory and practice.

The results obtained across the three case studies in the province of Málaga, complemented by in-depth interviews with clients and estate agents, confirm several assumptions advanced in the literature on CE and heritage rehabilitation. Empirically, the three cases achieved structural reuse rates ranging from 55 to 85%, alongside 90–95% reuse of finishes and furniture, avoiding between 1 and 2 tonnes of demolition waste per dwelling and saving approximately 350–600 kgCO₂e/m² of embodied carbon. Post-works operational energy demand ranged between 70 and 110 kWh/m²·year, with contained total costs (320–480 €/m²) and moderate circularity surcharges (approximately 7–10%). These quantified outcomes provide a solid empirical basis for the comparative analysis developed in this section.

In line with Foster (2020) and Gravagnuolo et al. (2019), the adaptive reuse of buildings emerges as an effective strategy to reduce resource consumption and construction-related emissions. In the Málaga cases, the recovery of original materials, the reuse of second-hand elements and the use of local resources illustrate how CE principles translate into concrete practices that simultaneously reduce environmental impacts and preserve architectural authenticity. These findings also align with Bosone et al. (2021), who emphasise the importance of assessing environmental, social and cultural dimensions jointly. Situated in Mediterranean rural contexts, the results further connect circular rehabilitation strategies with broader debates on sustainability across building, urban and territorial scales (Williams, 2019).

The interview data also corroborate the rural property market's growing interest in dwellings rehabilitated under circular principles, in line with Saez-De-;Guinoa et al. (2022) on the consolidation of CE strategies in European building renovation. The case of Belgian clients, heritage- and sustainability-oriented, and British clients, more pragmatic, reflects the diversity of international demand profiles, yet all recognise attributes linked to circularity. This empirical evidence supports Foster (2020) and Gravagnuolo et al. (2019), who underline that heritage rehabilitation under sustainable principles can attract new residents to rural areas, contributing to socio-economic revitalisation.

Another relevant finding is that estate agents perceive circular rehabilitation practices as a differentiating factor capable of revitalising the rural housing market. This perception aligns with Nocca and Angrisano (2022), who underline the importance of integrating sustainability criteria into the valorisation of heritage regeneration projects.

Moreover, the Málaga cases demonstrate that strategies such as selective deconstruction, design for disassembly and the use of material banks, widely advocated in the literature (Keena et al., 2023; Freitas et al., 2023), are not merely conceptual propositions but operational tools delivering tangible results in Mediterranean rural contexts. This reinforces the argument that CE principles can be effectively transferred and adapted to local scales, with clear replication potential.

A further aspect deserving attention is the cultural dimension of circularity, closely linked to the findings of this study. As noted by Pyyhtinen and Zavos (2025) and Valdebenito et al. (2021), CE should not be understood solely as a resource-efficiency model, but also as a catalyst for social and cultural capital. The 3 Málaga cases show that dwellings rehabilitated under circular principles not only preserve materials, but also revalue the intangible heritage associated with traditional construction techniques, from the use of lime mortars to the restoration of artisanal woodwork. This convergence between literature and practice confirms that heritage circularity strengthens local identities and adds value to dwellings, making them more attractive to clients seeking authenticity and belonging.

An additional emerging element is the link between circularity and international markets. As Saez-De-;Guinoa et al. (2022) point out, the transition towards circular practices in construction responds not only to European regulatory requirements, but also to new consumer expectations. Interest shown by foreign buyers in the interviews reinforces this idea: willingness to pay a premium for dwellings incorporating energy efficiency and heritage preservation indicates a consolidating niche market around sustainability. This finding aligns with Nocca and Angrisano (2022), who identify the need for multidimensional frameworks to evaluate projects integrating sustainability and cultural regeneration, underlining that the value of such houses is not limited to the financial aspect, but encompasses environmental and social dimensions.

The empirical evidence gathered also confirms the effectiveness of methodologies such as selective deconstruction and design for disassembly (Keena et al., 2023; Costantino et al., 2023). In the Málaga dwellings, we observed intensive use of second-hand and recovered materials (antique tiles, doors and timber beams), which reduced the need for new resources. This validates the assertion that the benefits of circularity are not confined to the moment of intervention but also prepare buildings for future reuse cycles. Even in rural contexts, these strategies are applicable and cost-effective, partially closing the gap identified in the literature concerning the lack of applied cases in Spain and the Mediterranean.

This study advances the literature on CE and heritage rehabilitation through three interrelated theoretical contributions. Overall, our findings provide empirical evidence with respect to the international debate on CE and heritage, partially bridging the gap in applied cases in Spain and the Mediterranean context identified by prior research (Bosone et al., 2021; Nocca and Angrisano, 2022; Alonso and Pozas, 2024; Hernández-Ramírez et al., 2022).

First, the findings contribute to CE theory by empirically demonstrating the transferability and operational viability of circular rehabilitation strategies, such as adaptive reuse, selective deconstruction and design for disassembly, in rural Mediterranean heritage housing. While existing frameworks have largely been developed and tested in urban or Northern European contexts (Foster, 2020; Keena et al., 2023; Costantino et al., 2023), this study shows that these strategies are not only technically feasible but also effective in vernacular dwellings characterised by high heritage sensitivity. In doing so, the study extends the contextual validity of CE models beyond their dominant empirical domains.

Second, the study contributes to the emerging debate on the multidimensional assessment of circularity in the built environment. By jointly analysing environmental indicators, cultural preservation outcomes and market-related perceptions, the research moves beyond mono-dimensional evaluations focused solely on material or energy efficiency. This integrative perspective aligns with and empirically substantiates recent calls to reconceptualise circular heritage rehabilitation as a socio-technical process in which environmental performance, cultural value and territorial impacts are mutually constitutive rather than independent dimensions (Bosone et al., 2021; Nocca and Angrisano, 2022).

Third, the findings introduce a market-oriented dimension into the theoretical discussion on circular heritage rehabilitation, an aspect that remains underexplored in the heritage literature. By evidencing how clients' and estate agents' valuations align with material reuse, environmental performance and heritage authenticity, the study explicitly links circular strategies with perceived market value and willingness to pay. This contribution advances theory by suggesting that market acceptance is not merely an outcome of circular interventions, but a mediating mechanism that can enable their scalability and long-term viability in rural heritage contexts, particularly within emerging international market niches.

From a practical perspective, the findings offer concrete guidance for architects, developers and technical professionals involved in rural heritage rehabilitation. The case studies demonstrate that CE principles can be operationalised through a set of replicable practices that do not compromise functionality, heritage value or economic feasibility. These practices include prioritising structural reinforcement over replacement, ensuring traceability and reuse of recovered materials, redesigning interior layouts to maximise natural light and cross-ventilation, and adopting circular interior design solutions through the reuse or adaptation of furniture and finishes.

Importantly, the quantified KPIs show that these strategies are compatible with contained costs and moderate price premiums, suggesting that circular rehabilitation can be integrated into professional practice without undermining project viability. For practitioners, this implies a shift from standard renovation logics towards a more selective, design-intensive and material-aware approach, in which technical decisions are aligned with long-term environmental performance and heritage authenticity.

From a policy and governance perspective, the results provide empirical support for the design of targeted public instruments to foster circular heritage rehabilitation in rural contexts. The existence of effective demand, including international buyers willing to value sustainability and cultural authenticity, justifies public incentives for material banks, selective deconstruction processes and training programmes in traditional construction trades. Moreover, the findings highlight the need for technical guidelines and regulatory frameworks that incorporate criteria related to disassemblability, documentation of recovered elements and future reuse potential. In this regard, integrating circularity criteria and Level(s) indicators into rehabilitation grants, planning regulations and heritage protection schemes could enhance the consistency and scalability of circular interventions.

Finally, the articulation of local governance structures and knowledge networks emerges as a critical condition for upscaling circular practices in rural settlements, in line with approaches to integrated conservation and territorial regeneration (Tira and Türkoğlu, 2023; Gravagnuolo et al., 2021). Together, these implications suggest that circular rehabilitation should not be approached as a set of isolated technical interventions. Rather, it should be embedded within coordinated rural development strategies that link sustainability objectives, heritage conservation and local economic revitalisation.

In summary, this study confirms that the renovation of rural housing using CE principles constitutes an effective strategy for reconciling environmental sustainability, heritage conservation and economic viability. The empirical evidence from the Málaga case studies shows that circular rehabilitation can achieve substantial reductions in resource consumption and embodied carbon while preserving architectural authenticity and remaining compatible with contained costs and moderate price premiums.

More broadly, the practices observed in Málaga illustrate how circular methodologies, often conceptualised in urban or industrial contexts, can be successfully adapted to rural Mediterranean settings. This reinforces the idea that the CE should not be understood solely as an environmental model, but also as a framework with the potential to support cultural continuity, social value creation and place-based development when applied to heritage-sensitive rural environments.

A first necessary avenue is the development of longitudinal evaluations to measure the effects of circular rehabilitation over time. As Bosone et al. (2021) and Foster (2020) note, there are still insufficient studies analysing the impact of these practices on social, demographic and economic indicators in rural areas. Future research could compare before-and-after conditions in Mediterranean towns, incorporating metrics such as resident population trends, local job creation or the growth of sustainable tourism. Such analyses would help bridge the gap between CE theory and its real impact on territorial revitalisation. Moreover, with a view to integration into urban agendas, future studies should explore how rural circular rehabilitation contributes to sustainable city indicators, in line with the European Commission's Level(s) framework and the objectives of the New European Bauhaus (European Commission, 2021).

Another line of work points to the articulation between CE and innovative financial models. Although cases such as the Material Bank of Porto have shown the feasibility of material-exchange platforms (Freitas et al., 2023), there is still little evidence on the adaptation of these instruments to Spanish rural contexts. Future research could explore schemes such as tax incentives, community investment funds or local cooperatives that facilitate the scaling-up of circular projects. This approach would not only broaden the base of interested buyers, but also consolidate a framework of sustainable and participatory governance that reinforces territorial resilience.

As with any exploratory study, this research presents methodological limitations that warrant acknowledgement. First, the limited number of in-depth interviews constrains the generalisability of findings to the entirety of the rural property market. Although the qualitative approach sought to capture deep perceptions and motivations (Kvale, 2007; Braun and Clarke, 2006), future studies could expand the sample to a larger set of actors, including architects, contractors and institutional representatives, thereby enriching the diversity of perspectives.

Second, the three case studies analysed are located in the province of Málaga, which limits the transferability of results to other rural contexts in Spain or the Mediterranean. While the findings show replicable practices, it will be necessary to contrast them in different regions, such as Galicia, Aragón or Portugal, where construction typologies and market dynamics differ significantly (Gravagnuolo et al., 2021). This work should therefore be understood as a starting point for comparative research to validate the applicability of circular methodologies in diverse rural settings.