Transformative learning and life competencies and their application for the education of communication professionals

The evolving dynamics of societies increasingly demand that communication professionals guide and support transformation processes (Kannengießer, 2021; Pleil et al., 2021; Weder, 2021). These processes occur across micro, meso, and macro levels (Pleil et al., 2021; Rademacher et al., 2024). Communication professionals in strategic roles face new challenges and responsibilities due to the significant transformations fueled by several ecological, technological and social disruptions (Göpel, 2016).

Situations resulting from transformative developments are often highly shaped by attributes that are known as VUCA – volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (Bennett and Lemoine, 2014) – requiring communication professionals to respond in an open-minded, flexible, sometimes even unconventional, and innovative manner. Most educational programs focus on hard skills, e.g. writing skills in their curricula (Bernhard and Russmann, 2023). However, given the rapid evolution of the field and the constant reshaping of professional challenges, today, it is said that soft skills, e.g. empathy or self-regulation are increasingly important (Sataøen and Lövgren, 2024). The challenge with soft skills is that, although they are frequently mentioned by practitioners—especially in job advertisements—they are often overlooked in educational programs, neglected in curricula, and are more challenging to develop and teach than the so-called hard skills (Bernhard and Russmann, 2023; Devedzic et al., 2018). Furthermore, we perceive it as problematic that competency frameworks in the field of professional communication often lack lifelong learning competencies. Because the field of communication is changing very quickly, it is essential for professionals to keep learning continuously. By the time they complete their study programs, much of what they learned may already be outdated — so developing ongoing learning skills is a must-have competence. Therefore, this contribution reviews the competencies suggested and demanded for future communication professionals in recent academic literature to challenge existing frameworks. In doing so, we seek methods to train soft skills and lifelong learning competencies and argue that Transformative Learning (TL) approaches in higher education can help overcome the challenges of teaching, developing, and training both.

In recent years, the roles and responsibilities of communication professionals concerned with external and internal communication have been reshaped by several ecological, technological, and social disruptions. Among these, digitalization (Bernhard and Russmann, 2023; Seidenglanz, 2024; Lee and Meng, 2021) and the increasing focus on sustainability (Weder, 2021) have been two particularly salient dimensions. One of the main challenges for communication professionals is the dynamic nature and complexity of the communicative field, which we describe by highlighting three key aspects: the changing of roles, intersecting field logics, and blurring boundaries.

Firstly, there is a wide variety and constant change in roles and tasks (Sataøen and Lövgren, 2024). The challenge lies in the diversity of professional profiles—communication professionals “managing different social media accounts, being a brand advocate, developing internal communication initiatives” (Lee and Meng, 2021, p. 421), acting as boundary-spanners and facilitators, rather than merely “tactical implementers” (Hallahan et al., 2007, p. 3). Another important role is that of enabling: communication professionals help, for example, to facilitate change processes (Deekeling and Arndt, 2021) or enable employees to act as representatives for organizations (Simonsson and Heide, 2021). All of this comes with the need for specific competencies, dimensions of responsibility, and spheres of influence.

Secondly, different logics shape the professional field, such as a managerial logic and a communicative logic (Simonsson and Heide, 2021). The managerial logic entails certain problematic implications, such as “a linear transmission view of communication” (Simonsson and Heide, 2021, p. 263). In contrast, a professional communicative logic could significantly advance the field, but still needs to be developed and integrated into communication education programs (Simonsson and Heide, 2021). There is also a connection between communicative logic and roles: together with a broader understanding of communication as an organization-wide activity, “the role of communication practitioners is thus shifting from being primarily executors and producers to enablers and facilitators of other organization members' communication” (Simonsson and Heide, 2021, p. 268).

Thirdly, the boundaries between communicative disciplines or branches—such as journalism, marketing, and public relations, or internal and external communication—have never been entirely distinct, and are now increasingly blurred (Coddington, 2015; Pranz et al., 2022; Weder et al., 2023; Weder and Weaver, 2023). Consequently, communication professionals must reflect on these remaining differences and act accordingly.

All three aspects are intensified by digitalization, which continues to drive massive changes in public communication (Castells, 2004; Godulla, 2017), most recently influenced by algorithms and AI (e.g. Ruisinger, 2024). In addition to digitalization, the shift toward communication that both fulfills organizational objectives and addresses societal purposes creates new opportunities, tasks, and roles for communication professionals (Macnamara, 2016). Recent research has explored how strategic communication can contribute to addressing societal challenges, particularly sustainability (e.g. Pleil et al., 2025; Weder, 2021). These developments underscore the evolving role of communication managers, “moving from a functional, transmissive to a co-constructive, transformative PR understanding” (Weder, 2022, p. 22). In line with this view, Pleil et al. (2025) propose Transformative Strategic Communication, which goes “beyond its use as an organizational function and […] can also contribute to democratically legitimized change in society” (Pleil et al., 2025, p. 12). Similarly, Peterson et al. (2022) discuss how communication professionals can empower citizens to sustainably transform their communities. Wade et al. (2024) highlight stakeholder engagement as a key factor in safeguarding an organization's license to operate—particularly in the context of sustainability. The authors also describe communication professionals today as facilitators (Wade et al., 2024).

Professional training often still relies on rigid, binary conceptions of roles and disciplines (e.g. PR vs. journalism), which fail to reflect contemporary real-world practices (Weder and Weaver, 2023). We argue that it is no longer sufficient to educate communication professionals for specific internal or external perspectives, or for fixed roles, tasks, or processes. Instead, they must be prepared for complexity, flexibility, and critical as well as strategic thinking, as they will need to navigate multiple perspectives, roles, and logics.

To better understand the competencies required to succeed in a complex, dynamic, and transformative environment, it is essential to explore the ongoing discussions surrounding the skills and qualifications of communication professionals. A critical foundation for this discourse is a precise understanding of core concepts such as competencies, skills, and knowledge.

The definitions of the terms “competence” and “competency” have always been somewhat vague (Le Deist and Winterton, 2005; Killingsworth and Flynn, 2016). Salman et al. (2020), for example, reviewed the terms and found that the definitions vary to some extent. However, they follow Hoffmann (1999) and state that three critical dimensions are visible in all definitions: “(1) visible performance/measurable outcome; (2) standard/quality of output; and (3) individual attributes/characteristics of an individual” (p. 726). For a detailed review and definitions of competence and competency, see Salman et al. (2020). For a description of the roots in different cultural contexts, see Le Deist and Winterton (2005). The most cited and widely recognized definition among communication scholars stems from Gregory (2008). She describes knowledge, skills, and competencies as follows: Knowledge is “what practitioners need to know […] to undertake their role competently.” Skills are “what practitioners need to be able to do to undertake their role competently.” According to Gregory, competencies are “behavioral repertoires or sets of behaviors that support the attainment of organizational objectives” (2008, p. 216).

This general understanding of competencies as intentionally and appropriately selected combinations of skills and knowledge has prevailed and is referred to by the authors of the Romanian Qualifications Framework (Cernicova et al., 2011). Tench et al. (2013) also followed this path in the ECOPSI (European Communication Professionals Skills and Innovation) program, which mapped practitioners' future communication management skills across Europe.

Tench et al. (2013), as well as Jeffrey and Brunton (2011), differentiate personal traits or attributes from competencies: “The distinction is that personal attributes determine how well a competency is performed, and competencies can be taught, while personal attributes are modeled or fostered” (Jeffrey and Brunton, 2011, p. 69). Tench et al. (2013) describe knowledge, skills, and personal attributes as elements of competencies. Most of the conceptual work on competencies is focused on work situations that are already known, everyday, or standard (e.g. Jeffrey and Brunton, 2011). Illeris (2014), however, points out that competency means more than just professional knowledge – it includes the ability to apply that knowledge in complex, uncertain situations, along with personal judgment, attitudes, and individual qualities.

There is a large body of research that examines the competencies, skills, and personal attributes identified as essential for communication professionals. In the following we selected four studies to outline the debate.

One of the most comprehensive analyses of competencies within the field of communication professionals across Europe was provided by the ECOPSI program (Tench et al., 2013), which also included the competencies mentioned in the literature up to 2013. The ECOPSI study differentiates between skills, knowledge, and personal attributes. Other recent studies have analyzed job advertisements to identify the required skills (Auger and Cho, 2016; Bernhard and Russmann, 2023; Brunner et al., 2018; Meganck et al., 2020). These studies often distinguish between hard and soft skills.

Soft skills are often linked to personality attributes. Bernhard and Russmann (2023), following Devedzic et al. (2018, p. 282), describe them as encompassing “personality traits, social graces, communication, language, personal habits, and interpersonal skills.” Soft skills include effective communication, collaboration, teamwork, critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, leadership, responsibility, decision-making, flexibility, adaptability, time management, initiative, self-direction, social and civic competencies, and entrepreneurial skills (see Table 1). These complement hard skills, which refer to a person's technical abilities and expertise in performing specific domain-related tasks, such as operating machinery, programming, or conducting statistical analyses (Bernhard and Russmann, 2023). The following table summarizes the soft and hard skills and personal attributes mentioned in the above-cited studies in strategic communication.

Table 1 shows the great variety of skills and attributes in communication studies. It also confirms the findings of Meganck et al. (2020), who noted that soft skills such as organizational skills, leadership abilities, and teamwork are essential for today's PR practitioners. The most recent report by the Commission on Public Relations Education (Toth and Bourland-Davis, 2023) supports this trend and recommends a focus on developing students' soft skills, for example, through experiential learning. This can help them navigate changing and challenging workplaces. Moreover, the report dedicates an entire chapter to emphasizing the importance of critical and strategic thinking (Toth and Bourland-Davis, 2023).

Against this background, training in hard skills and domain-specific knowledge is also essential—especially in light of the climate crisis and the rise of artificial intelligence. However, while hard skills often constitute a significant part of university curricula for communication professionals, soft skills and personal competencies are frequently overlooked (Devedzic et al., 2018).

As previously discussed, communication professionals frequently encounter VUCA situations during transformative processes. Consequently, we advocate for a concept of competencies that explicitly focuses on the ability to respond effectively to volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous circumstances. This need is also emphasized in the learning theory by Illeris, who highlights critical thinking, flexibility, and adaptability as essential competencies—particularly because leaders and trendsetters must adapt their broad knowledge and understanding (Illeris, 2014).

Notably, none of the reviewed studies explicitly mention the ability for lifelong learning. We believe this is a crucial competency for communication professionals who face profound societal transformation. Lifelong learning has been discussed in the context of digital transformation and the need for communication practitioners to stay up to date, as their work environments, task requirements, and digital tools change rapidly (Helferich and Pleil, 2019; Pleil and Helferich, 2015).

Furthermore, particularly for generations born since the 1980s, creating, maintaining, and evolving one's identity has become a fundamental yet challenging task—shaped by the abundance of choices and societal change (Illeris, 2014). Abels (2010) develops the concept of identity from a sociological perspective as one of historically and culturally informed difference. He traces these epistemological developments in detail, pointing out the modern identity crisis, the pluralization of social contexts, and the increasing demands of self-reflection.

Consequently, we seek a competency framework that incorporates the essential soft skills for communication professionals highlighted in the reviewed example studies and emphasizes lifelong learning and the competencies required to effectively navigate unpredictable situations and maintain a balanced identity.

One recent framework not limited to the field of communication— but relevant for communication education—is the LifeComp Framework (Sala et al., 2020), published by the European Commission: “LifeComp offers a conceptual framework for the ‘Personal, Social, and Learning to Learn’ key competency for education systems, students, and learners as a whole. LifeComp intends to systematize the need to improve personal and social competencies through education and lifelong learning, as well as promoting learning how to learn” (Sala et al., 2020, p. 4). The competencies are categorized into three areas: Personal, Social, and Learning to Learn. Each area encompasses three specific competencies (Sala et al., 2020).

Some of the competencies mentioned in the LifeComp Framework are also found in the reviewed studies above—such as flexibility, empathy, communication, collaboration, and critical thinking. However, competencies like Self-Regulation, Wellbeing, Growth Mindset, and Managing Learning are not mentioned in the previous research. In addition, new competency frameworks have recently emerged to address the challenges of digital and ecological transformation (Annelin and Boström, 2023; Rêgo et al., 2023). These show significant overlap, with soft skills once again playing a central role.

One unique challenge that comes with the high relevance of soft skills—besides their frequent absence in curricula—is that, unlike hard skills (such as writing or technical abilities), which are cognitive, easier to teach, and more straightforward to assess, soft skills and personal competencies are deeply connected to emotional and social intelligence or metacognition. This makes them less suited to traditional classroom instruction and more difficult to measure effectively (Bernhard and Russmann, 2023; Devedzic et al., 2018).

In summary, we first emphasize the importance of soft skills and lifelong learning as critical factors in rapidly transforming environments. Secondly, we recognize the unique challenge of teaching and training communication professionals accordingly. Thus, the question remains: How can PR and communication programs equip students with these essential skills? To address this, we propose incorporating Transformative Learning (TL) as a framework to enhance PR and communication education—enabling students to develop the competencies required to effectively navigate highly complex and transformative situations (Formenti and Hoggan-Kloubert, 2023).

Over the past 45 years, several scholars have contributed to the development of theories on TL. In particular, Hoggan has reviewed the extensive body of literature framing TL as a meta-theory or paradigm, and has examined its strengths and weaknesses (Hoggan, 2023; Hoggan and Finnegan, 2023; Hoggan and Higgins, 2023). Through this work, TL has been established as a meta-theory or paradigm encompassing various theoretical approaches (Hoggan and Higgins, 2023).

Jack Mezirow is widely recognized as the founder and most influential representative of TL (Mezirow, 1991, 2000). His concept of perspective transformation has been classified as an individual theoretical approach within the broader meta-theory of TL (Hoggan and Higgins, 2023). Mezirow's approach focuses on individuals' meaning-making processes and encourages people to become more reflective, open, and emotionally capable of change:

Mezirow's approach is both detailed and influential. It has inspired numerous scholars and sparked ongoing debates regarding the scope and definitions of TL (Hoggan, 2016). Hoggan repeatedly emphasizes that “there is no single theory of Transformative Learning” (Hoggan and Higgins, 2023, p. 14). Therefore, when referring to specific aspects of the TL paradigm, it is necessary to clarify which theoretical lens is being applied (Hoggan and Higgins, 2023).

In this context, we adopt Hoggan's metatheoretical definition of TL: “Transformative Learning refers to processes that result in significant and irreversible changes in the way a person experiences, conceptualizes, and interacts with the world.” (Hoggan and Higgins, 2023, p. 71) This definition is linked to three core dimensions, metaphorically described as “heart, head, and hands” (p. 71). These dimensions refer respectively to: “a person's lived, felt experience” (heart), “the way the person understands, makes sense of, and interprets the world and their experiences” (head), and “the way transformation affects how a person acts, including the behaviors they choose to engage in as well as the way those behaviors are carried out” (hands) (Hoggan and Higgins, 2023). Based on an extensive literature review, Hoggan and Higgins identified six broad categories of TL outcomes (see Table 2): (1) Worldview, (2) Self, (3) Epistemology, (4) Ontology, (5) Behavior, and (6) Capacity. Additionally, they propose specific criteria for assessing learning outcomes, differentiating between: Depth: the degree or significance of change, Breadth: the number of contexts in which change becomes evident, and Stability: the relative permanence or irreversibility of the transformation (Hoggan and Higgins, 2023).

Illeris (2014) developed a theory of learning that includes TL as one of its foundational pillars and conceives of learning not merely as a cognitive process, but as “the total personal development of capacities related to all functions and spheres of human life” (Illeris, 2004, p. 80). He distinguishes four fundamental types of learning—cumulation, assimilation, accommodation, and transformation—which differ significantly in scope and complexity but are equally valuable. Illeris describes TL as “the structurally most comprehensive kind of learning that includes simultaneous restructuring in all three learning dimensions” (Illeris, 2004, p. 85).

Formenti and Hoggan-Kloubert (2023) have linked the paradigm of TL to the concept of societal learning, primarily referring to Mezirow. They write:

They see strong potential in designing, implementing, and assessing learning paths that focus on ecology and sustainability (Formenti and Hoggan-Kloubert, 2023). Specifically, they argue that this requires a type of learning that: “is not cumulative, instrumental, or transmissive, but transformative—that is, aimed at breaking dominant routines and frameworks of meaning” (Formenti and Hoggan-Kloubert, 2023, p. 110). When discussing TL, educators must take certain ethical considerations into account (Cranton, 2023; Hoggan, 2023), as it should not be assumed that educators have the right to transform others. For example, educators should respect learners' autonomy (Hoggan, 2023) and be cautious about imposing specific views or mindsets on them (Cranton, 2023).

It should also be acknowledged that transformation, as defined above, is not the only goal of education: “In most situations, when learners enroll in an educational program, their purpose is not to transform (…)” (Hoggan, 2023, p. 451). However, particularly in higher education, students are often encouraged to adopt new perspectives and critically reflect on previously unquestioned assumptions (Hoggan, 2023). Paul and Quiggin (2020) even argue that this kind of epistemic transformation plays the most crucial role in higher education. They emphasize that epistemic and personal transformations are deeply intertwined; significant intellectual development inherently fosters personal growth. In alignment with our argument, Paul and Quiggin advocate for educational institutions to embrace and actively support their transformative role—guiding students toward discovering their potential and reshaping their identities. A successful university education achieves this by fostering epistemic transformation that extends beyond disciplinary knowledge and influences attitudes toward social and cultural beliefs. This process often results in profound personal transformation with meaningful social implications, thereby underscoring the broader impact of education on both individuals and society (Paul and Quiggin, 2020).

When examining the LifeComp Framework, it becomes evident that many of its competencies align with the six categories of TL identified by Hoggan and Higgins through their literature review (Table 2). The competency of self-regulation relates to the category of the self. Critical thinking and flexibility intersect strongly with the category epistemology. Furthermore, the personal, social, and learning-to-learn competencies listed in the LifeComp Framework point toward Hoggan and Higgins' definition of TL, which refers to: “changes in the way a person experiences, conceptualizes, and interacts with the world.” (Hoggan and Higgins, 2023, p. 71) Finally, the LifeComp Framework highlights the importance of the ability to learn—which, in our view, should explicitly be understood as lifelong learning.

We argue that the paradigm of TL is particularly well suited to meet the requirements outlined above. Its approaches can foster the group of so-called soft skills, enabling learners to respond to the ongoing, profound transformations (digital, ecological, societal and political) and to address the resulting challenges in the training and education of communication professionals. Moreover, TL is ideally suited to support the reflection, development, and strengthening of learners' personality and identity.

TL has rarely been applied in the context of (strategic) communication. In the following chapter, we will outline how TL can be integrated into educational settings within university-level communication programs, with particular reference to the competencies identified in the LifeComp Framework (Sala et al., 2020).

In the previous section, we described TL as particularly effective for developing competencies that are not necessarily job-specific, but more general—such as managing learning or critical thinking—as outlined in the LifeComp Framework. In this section, we integrate literature from Sala and Herrero Ramila (2022), who provide a comprehensive guide on fostering competencies from the LifeComp Framework by describing concrete methods and teaching strategies for communication education programs. We also draw on the work of Baumgartner (2019) and Cranton (2023), who offer insights into facilitating TL —likewise supported by specific learning activities.

We have argued that the field of communication is highly dynamic and complex due to the diverse roles communication professionals assume, the coexistence of different logics within the field (e.g. managerial logic and communicative logic), and the blurring of boundaries between various disciplines or sectors. However, at the core of the profession—and regardless of specific roles, logics, or blurred boundaries—communication professionals are, by definition, involved in communicative situations and processes. These are inherently culture-laden and shaped by the personalities of those participating in them. The following methods and teaching strategies foster life skills that are specific to the communication field. While these skills are valuable for anyone engaging in social life, they are absolutely essential for communication professionals, as they define both professional competence and individual potential. Therefore, they must be taught in every communication education program with the greatest possible depth. Moreover, the more the field shifts away from a functional toward a co-constructive understanding of communication (Weder, 2022), the more crucial the following aspects become:

Baumgartner (2019), for instance, points out that TL is fostered by integrating learners' prior individual experiences in educational settings. This is best accompanied by real-life experience, for example, student-run agencies (Ranta et al., 2021). Students learn to execute a media project and work in a team, solve problems, communicate effectively, and take roles and responsibilities in those contexts. This way a highly dynamic training field is provided and the communication students can practice different roles and reflect on their experiences in fulfilling them.

Since dialog and relational communication are crucial for communication professionals it is important to address learners' emotions, attitudes, and preferences while fostering analytic discussions. Teachers should emphasize the importance of context factors as the role of personal and sociocultural circumstances and prior experiences (Baumgartner, 2019) as well as personal learning styles, and pace (Sala and Herrero Ramila, 2022). This way communication students train their meta observation and become aware of “hidden topics” within communication processes.

Of course, (critical) reflection should be integrated into communication education settings as frequently as possible (Baumgartner, 2019; Sala and Herrero Ramila, 2022). It enables learners to deepen their understanding and awareness of their thought processes, strengths, weaknesses, and preferred learning approaches. Through reflection, they can derive overarching principles from their experiences and apply them to new contexts, thereby laying a foundation for continued learning (Sala and Herrero Ramila, 2022). Sala and Herrero Ramila (2022) suggest seven aspects to strengthen reflection in teaching. These include setting short-term goals, implementing quick check-ins, sharing assessment criteria, and diversifying assessment formats. The type of reflection they promote is primarily focused on the learning process itself—which is, of course, highly valuable. In communication education programs, however, we propose preparing learners for the complexity of the field by fostering reflection on social, cultural, and communicative aspects—and their relationship to actual decisions and actions. For students entering the communication field and aiming to contribute strategically, working closely with decision-makers, it is especially important to develop and practice constant meta-perspective observation of social and communicative processes.

The concept of TL goes even one step further: it involves questioning deeply held assumptions and beliefs (Mezirow, 1991). Therefore, value-laden course content should be deliberately integrated, as it can prompt critical reflection and self-awareness, serving as a catalyst for meaningful change (Baumgartner, 2019). For example, Ju and Kang (2021) employed a critical dialogical approach to teach intercultural competency to Public Relations students. In relation to the practice-based, experiential, and real-life learning scenarios that we will outline in the following section, educators can purposefully confront students with perspectives, roles, and situations that lie outside their personal beliefs or familiar patterns of thinking, communication, and behavior.

Another important aspect of TL is the cultivation of authentic relationships in teaching (Baumgartner, 2019) and a focus on student-centered learning (Delmo and Krikowa, 2021; Sala and Herrero Ramila, 2022). For educators, authenticity involves self-awareness, being genuine, addressing learners' needs, critically reflecting on their own teaching practices, and being consistently open to adapting them in favor of a more student-centered approach (Baumgartner, 2019; Delmo and Krikowa, 2021). Sala and Herrero Ramila (2022) recommend creating an atmosphere of psychological safety by “expressing genuine interest in learners' lives […] being consistent, honest, and open about your expectations and feelings as an educator […] encouraging participation over perfection” (p. 10). To strengthen student-centered teaching, they suggest giving “learners opportunities to take the lead and experience autonomy by engaging in learning activities based on their interests” (Sala and Herrero Ramila, 2022, p. 12). One practical example of this is collaborative knowledge generation (Büffel et al., 2007).

For students in communication programs, these aspects of TL are especially relevant. They help create a relaxed and safe learning environment, which is essential for experimenting with unfamiliar communication styles and roles. Based on authentic relationships and student-centered scenarios, educators can take on the role of trainers and better prepare students for complexity and challenging tasks—by encouraging them to continually switch communicative roles, styles, tactics, and strategies. This approach enables learners to gain deep experiences and expand their personal boundaries.

In the second part of this section, we focus on concrete teaching techniques, methods, and activities that are particularly promising for communication students—especially given the increasing complexity of the field and the growing expectations regarding the range of communicative skills required (Sataøen and Lövgren, 2024). The suggested techniques and methods primarily target the competency areas of self, social, and learning to learn. We propose three core pillars for a learning environment that fosters TL and is specifically tailored to the communicative field: process and self-reflection, project-based, real-life or experiential learning environments, and a holistic approach.

Firstly, journaling is an excellent tool to strengthen process and self-reflection. It can help communication students engage more deeply with content, reflect on processes and underlying premises, and promote profound meaning-making and personal growth (Baumgartner, 2019). Cranton (2023) suggests practical approaches to journal writing, such as dividing the page into two sections—one for recording thoughts and the other for emotions. Educators can review these journals and provide feedback to encourage reflection on communicative roles, field-specific logics, and the blurring boundaries between communicative disciplines. In doing so, they help prepare communication professionals for the high level of complexity and dynamism characteristic of their work.

Secondly, service learning is a teaching and learning method that belongs to the realm of project-based, experiential, and real-life learning. It can be particularly valuable for communication students, as it combines academic learning with community service. In this setting, students apply theoretical knowledge and acquired skills to real-world projects that benefit society (Felten and Clayton, 2011). Service learning is a highly communicative and socially embedded activity that offers numerous opportunities for self-exploration and allows students to experience the intersection between managerial and communicative logic (Simonsson and Heide, 2021). It fosters both subject-specific and social competencies, while also enabling students to gain practical experience and contribute to the common good—thereby engaging with and reflecting on norms and values (Felten and Clayton, 2011). A central component of service learning is reflective practice: learners reflect on their communicative experiences within the project and consciously connect them with the theoretical content covered in class. This process deepens their understanding of what has been learned and reinforces both personal and social responsibility (Cully Garbers et al., 2024; Dal Magro et al., 2020).

The project-based, experiential, and real-life learning pillar can also be addressed through tasks such as building a community, creating a learning network, or organizing group activities—since all of these require personal and communicative competencies. Developing a sense of belonging can further enhance the transformative nature of learning (Cranton, 2023). Students may also be involved in peer-to-peer mentoring or collaborative work (Sala and Herrero Ramila, 2022). Project-based learning initiatives, such as student-run agencies—already discussed in the section on real-life experiences (Ranta et al., 2021)—are another effective way to foster collaborative learning experiences.

Thirdly, a holistic approach is recommended. TL is enhanced by engaging the whole person—emotionally and creatively—through methods such as music, drama, storytelling, fiction (Baumgartner, 2019), and art-based activities (Monk et al., 2023). These creative tools evoke emotions, encourage new perspectives, and foster critical reflection in ways that combine empathy with imagination (Baumgartner, 2019). Elsey (2024), for example, found that the Improvisational Theater Art Form (ITAF) empowers transformative awareness, personal growth, and change. The participants “created improvised games and scenes as expressions of their inner selves to explore ‘habits of the mind’ negatively affecting social living and daily life” (Elsey, 2024, p. 64). Such activities include role-playing (Cranton, 2023; Baumgartner, 2019; Sala and Herrero Ramila, 2022) or simulations (Cranton, 2023). Educators can integrate these methods flexibly into their didactic concepts. For instance, communication students could be asked to: illustrate the communicative roles they feel most and least comfortable with, analyze characters in films or novels in terms of their communicative roles, or engage in role plays where managerial logic collides with professional communication logic, and the participants are challenged to find solutions collaboratively.

Sala and Herrero Ramila (2022) provide a comprehensive guide to teaching methods and identify which techniques foster which competencies. A summary of these connections is presented in Table 3.

This paper contributes to the advancement of communication education. We argue that educational concepts for communication professionals must be reconsidered and adapted—particularly in light of the significant ecological, technological, and social transformations we are currently facing. These challenges are driving fundamental change within companies, institutions, and organizations—transformations that must be carefully prepared for and accompanied by professional communication. In this context, expectations and pressure on communication professionals have increased significantly in recent years (Sataøen and Lövgren, 2024).

This is especially true for communication professionals in strategic or consulting roles who frequently collaborate with top decision-makers and are familiar with a professional communication logic (Simonsson and Heide, 2021). These professionals now face new challenges and expanded responsibilities. Increasingly, they are required to navigate VUCA conditions—volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous—which demand flexible, precise, and creative responses. These conditions also make it more difficult to maintain a stable sense of self. Communication professionals are confronted with a wide array of expectations, roles, logics, and potential life paths, making self-management more complex than ever before.

Therefore, communication professionals need specific competencies to master unpredictable situations, whether due to technological shifts or sustainability challenges. Based on our review of recent studies in the field, we found that there is a strong emphasis on soft skills and competencies closely tied to personality and identity. At the same time, there is a noticeable gap in the literature regarding lifelong learning competencies and the ability to manage and balance a modern self. For this reason, we argue that the LifeComp Framework from the European Commission offers a suitable foundation for communication education, as it encompasses the three key competency areas: self, social, and learning to learn.

However, soft skills and personal competencies are significantly more complex to teach than hard skills such as writing. To address this, we propose that the TL paradigm is particularly well suited for fostering these competencies within higher education programs for communication professionals. We have outlined the key aspects of teaching, along with concrete methods and approaches, that align with a co-constructive understanding of public relations and promote both TL and the LifeComp competencies.

We propose three core pillars for a learning environment that fosters TL within the communication field: Self-reflection, as well as reflection on social, cultural, and communicative processes, should be initiated through TL methods. Project-based, real-life, or experiential learning environments are particularly effective, as they offer a foundation for self-exploration and numerous opportunities for meta-reflection. A holistic approach, which is typical for TL, should be integrated—since creative and art-based activities stimulate emotional engagement and enable playful exploration of unfamiliar perspectives, roles, and situations, which can then be meaningfully reflected upon.

Further research opportunities lie in the systematic evaluation of different teaching methods within communication education. In addition, integrating and focusing on competency frameworks related to sustainability could enhance future research. Finally, exploring other transformative educational theories—such as those that emphasize emotions (Carter and Nicolaides, 2023) or art-based and embodied approaches (Butterwick and Lawrence, 2023)—may further strengthen the preparation of communication professionals for the complex demands of their field.