Fate and transport of metal oxide nanoparticle through subsurface environment: a review

Engineered nanomaterials have found potential applications across various fields, including environmental, pharmaceutical, and industrial domains. Among these, metal oxide nanoparticles are widely utilised in chemistry, physics, and other sciences. However, the accelerated production and unintended release of metal oxide nanoparticles into ecosystems have raised concerns about their toxicity. Thus, it is crucial to study the physicochemical factors, such as pH, natural organic matter, and compartment composition – that influence the behaviour and stability of metal oxide nanoparticles. Upon release, these nanoparticles interact with different media, including water, air, and soil, leading to changes in their properties and potential effects. This research aims to provide an overview of the physicochemical factors that alter the characteristics of metal oxide nanoparticles. It also focuses on their transport mechanisms, as well as the mathematical and theoretical models that explain their fate and mobility. Furthermore, the study highlights the toxicological impacts of excessive exploitation of metal oxide nanoparticles on various habitats.