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It is increasingly important to predict deformations around retaining walls, piles, tunnels, slopes, dams and excavations. When constitutive behaviour is non-linear, predictions of deformations depend on stress history, so ‘starting stresses’ (or in situ stresses) must be known (Brooker & Ireland, 1965; Garga & Khan, 1991; Simpson, 1992; Vaughan, 1994; Shohet, 1995).

Vertical stresses can be determined easily from depths, densities and groundwater information, but horizontal stresses are more difficult. They usually have to be estimated from empirical values of K0, the coefficient of earth pressure ‘at rest’ under conditions of zero...

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