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Stresses are applied or altered during construction, and the ground responds in the form of deformation. The engineering behaviour of the ground can be studied thoroughly when information is available on both the stresses and the strains. In cases where only stresses are known, strains can be predicted using powerful constitutive modelling. An adequate knowledge of the stress conditions is therefore essential for predicting the performance of ground with reasonable confidence. Various methods are currently used to measure stresses and strains in soils.

The water (or fluid) pressures can be measured using a pore pressure transducer, and total pressures using...

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