Whole-of-government approach in disaster management: collaborative case study on the 2023 Morocco earthquake response

On September 8, 2023, Morocco was struck by the Al Haouz earthquake, one of the most devastating natural disasters in its history. Recorded at Mw 6.8 by the United States Geological Survey, the earthquake’s epicenter was located near Ighil in the Al Haouz province, 72 km southwest of Marrakech. Tremors extended over 500 km, affecting an area of more than 31,000 km² – comparable to the size of Belgium. A significant aftershock, measured at Mw 4.9, further compounded the disaster’s devastating effects.

The earthquake’s impact was catastrophic. According to the Moroccan Ministry of the Interior, 2,960 lives were lost, with 5,674 people injured, primarily in the provinces of Al Haouz and Taroudant. Nearly 500,000 individuals were displaced, including 380,000 severely affected near the epicenter. Housing destruction was extensive, with 60,000 homes damaged and 19,000 completely demolished. Critical infrastructure suffered severe disruptions: over 530 educational institutions were affected, 50,000 households were left without basic services and 20 main roads were rendered inaccessible, along with over 100 rural tracks blocked by landslides and debris.

In response to these multifaceted challenges, Morocco adopted a Whole-of-Government (WoG) approach – a governance framework designed to unify governmental actors for coordinated and effective disaster response (DR). This domestically driven strategy integrated military assets, civil departments and agencies under centralized decision-making. International aid was selectively accepted from the UK, Spain, Qatar and the UAE, raising critical questions about Morocco’s capacity for autonomous DM, particularly given its socioeconomic vulnerabilities and proximity to Europe, which amplifies cross-continental impacts.

The WoG approach has been extensively explored by scholars who have significantly contributed to its conceptual and practical development. Shergold (2004) highlighted its role in addressing interdepartmental challenges through unified governance, whereas Ostrom (1990) emphasized collaborative frameworks central to intergovernmental coordination. Moravcsik (2013) contextualized the dynamics of state-driven integration underpinning WoG mechanisms. In the specific context of DM, scholars such as ‘t Hart and Tummers (2014), Boin et al. (2016) underlined the importance of adaptive leadership and interagency coordination for effective crisis management. McConnell (2011) complemented these insights by evaluating the balance between coordination and adaptability in WoG responses.

This case study examines Morocco’s WoG DR framework, assessing its internal integration and performance while critically analyzing its engagement with broader environmental actors, including Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), community stakeholders and media. As a complex system, the WoG approach is expected to dynamically interact with its environment, leveraging contributions from diverse actors to optimize resource mobilization and enhance response outcomes. Identified gaps in these interactions highlight critical areas for improvement.

A central feature of the WoG approach was the involvement of the Royal Armed Forces, which played a pivotal role in logistical support and coordination. The integration of military and civilian actors highlights the importance of civilian–military relations in effective DM, particularly in resource-constrained settings. Scholars such as Huntington (1981), Burk (2002) and Janowitz (2017) offered diverse perspectives on military involvement in civilian operations, ranging from advocating strict separation to promoting active engagement. This study analyzes first-hand cooperation practices within the WoG framework, assessing their effectiveness and identifying areas for improvement.

While the WoG approach emphasizes interagency coordination among government entities, the broader Whole-of-Society (WoS) framework advocates for inclusive collaboration with civil society, the private sector and communities. Ortenzi et al. (2022) highlighted WoG’s government-centric focus, contrasting it with WoS’s emphasis on collective action. Kjellén et al. (2023) and Burris and Terry (2023) echoed this distinction, arguing that integrating nonstate actors is essential for effective disaster resilience. The United Nations (UN) further underscores resilience as a shared responsibility, advocating broader societal engagement. Aligning Morocco’s WoG framework with the transformative advantages of the WoS approach could enhance its inclusivity and adaptability, paving the way for a more holistic DR strategy.

Our study highlights disaster resilience in North Africa – a region frequently overlooked despite its considerable vulnerabilities and complex geopolitical challenges. Governance issues, political dynamics and socioeconomic constraints often obstruct the implementation of adaptive DM systems. By examining Morocco’s response to this earthquake, the research investigates how these factors shaped the WoG framework’s strengths and limitations.

This case offers a valuable lens to assess the WoG framework in a middle-income country contending with resource constraints and rural vulnerabilities. The study emphasizes the framework’s application across three key dimensions: operational effectiveness, stakeholder coordination and adaptability and flexibility, providing actionable recommendations to enhance DM systems in Morocco and similar contexts.

The central research question guiding this study is: To what extent was Morocco’s WoG response effective in managing the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake? To address this, four interrelated subresearch questions (SRQs) are explored:

To address these research questions, it is crucial to define key terms central to evaluating the WoG framework. In this study, effectiveness refers to the framework’s ability to achieve DR goals through timely, targeted outcomes, such as minimizing delays and optimizing resources, whereas influence reflects the role of feedback loops and real-time adjustments in shaping and enhancing its overall performance. Together, these concepts offer a focused lens to assess the adaptability and precision of the WoG approach during the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake.

Grounded in complex adaptive systems (CAS) theory, this study uses principles such as feedback loops, self-organization and adaptability to evaluate Morocco’s WoG framework. A mixed-methods approach – incorporating extensive fieldwork, in-depth interviews, comprehensive content analysis and M-MACBETH methodology guided by an expert panel – supports this evaluation. Lessons from proven international best practices and successful initiatives are incorporated into a proposed roadmap to guide future policy adaptations and refine DM strategies in Morocco and similar contexts worldwide.

Finally, by focusing on governance structures, civilian–military coordination and sociopolitical dynamics, this study contributes to the broader literature by offering a critical examination of Morocco’s DM framework. It assesses the effectiveness of the WoG approach during the earthquake response, providing a robust evaluation of adaptive governance mechanisms in dynamic crises and laying the groundwork for comparative analyses of DM systems across diverse national contexts.

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 covers the theoretical foundation, Section 3 outlines the methodology, Section 4 presents the findings, discussing key successes and challenges within the WoG framework, and Section 5 addresses broader implications, offering an actionable roadmap to strengthen future DM resilience. Section 6 concludes with key insights from the case study.

CAS theory provides a robust foundation for evaluating Morocco’s WoG approach during the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake. By emphasizing principles like feedback loops, self-organization and adaptability, CAS captures the dynamic coordination and resource management essential in DM. This theoretical lens addresses critical gaps, particularly in underexplored North African contexts, by exploring how comprehensive systems like WoG operationalize these principles to manage complexity and uncertainty effectively.

CAS theory offers an ideal framework for analyzing the intricate dynamics of Morocco’s governmental response during the Al Haouz earthquake. As Holling (1973) emphasized, complex systems must adapt to maintain functionality under external pressures, whereas Hollnagel (2015) highlighted resilience as the capacity to absorb disruptions and reorganize to sustain performance – both essential to the WoG framework. This adaptive, multilayered system integrates governmental entities and external actors like NGOs and local communities, enabling coordinated, flexible responses in rapidly evolving disaster scenarios.

These interactions shape resource mobilization, coordination strategies and adaptability during the response. NGOs, while external to the WoG framework, acted as critical contributors by providing localized relief. Their actions, influenced by CAS dynamics, created feedback loops that informed governmental adjustments and enhanced system responsiveness. This dynamic interplay aligns with Comfort’s (2007) emphasis on real-time collaboration and iterative learning and reflects Holland’s (2000) principle of emergence, where local interactions yield system-level coherence. The seamless integration of military, civilian and community actors also demonstrates Tierney’s (2019) focus on adaptive leadership and flexibility in DM.

Framing the WoG framework as a complex system through CAS theory provides a nuanced understanding of how governmental operations synergize with external elements, showcasing the adaptability, innovation and resilience required to manage disaster scenarios with strategic precision.

The application of CAS theory in DM has gained attention for explaining decentralized coordination in dynamic, multistakeholder environments. CAS principles provide critical insights into how actors adapt to changing disaster conditions, yet their integration into comprehensive frameworks like the WoG approach remains underexplored in large-scale disasters.

Comfort (1994) highlighted self-organization as vital for mutual learning and adaptation in communities affected by earthquakes. However, her work focused on local-level coordination, leaving national and cross-sector integration underexamined. Shi et al. (2021) explored civil–military collaboration in China, showing the effectiveness of decentralized resource allocation but with limited applicability to regions with distinct civil–military dynamics. Zhang et al. (2016) similarly emphasized self-organization but restricted their analysis to localized systems.

Kapucu and Garayev (2016) compared horizontal and vertical DM networks, finding decentralized systems more adaptable and resource-efficient in rapidly evolving crises. Waugh and Streib (2006), reflecting on Hurricane Katrina, critiqued hierarchical responses for hindering adaptability, advocating decentralized models. However, neither study explored these systems in integrated WoG frameworks.

In humanitarian logistics (HL), Schiffling et al. (2022) demonstrated resilience emerging from self-organizing behaviors, whereas Piraina and Trucco (2022) examined nonlinear interactions in logistics. Both studies neglected essential cross-sector coordination. Wu et al. (2024) highlighted adaptive feedback loops enabling real-time adjustments by local governments in China, whereas Coetzee et al. (2016) focused on self-organization in low-income communities. Sadeghi et al. (2021) emphasized scaling self-organization in complex systems but noted gaps in broader applications.

The COVID-19 pandemic revealed further CAS applications. Guo et al. (2021) explored self-organizing networks in China’s public health system, whereas Hong and Lim (2023) emphasized governance failures in South Korea. Haraguchi (2020) highlighted feedback loops in civil–military coordination but noted challenges in centralized systems.

In summary, although CAS principles have been applied to DM, their role in WoG frameworks remains insufficiently explored. This study addresses this gap by focusing on feedback loops, self-organization and adaptability to critically evaluate Morocco’s response to the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake.

The CAS theory provides a robust framework for analyzing Morocco’s WoG response to the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake. CASs are dynamic networks of interacting agents – such as individuals, organizations and technologies – that evolve and adapt to changing internal and external conditions. Defined by principles like feedback loops, self-organization and adaptability, CAS emphasizes resilience and innovation, making it particularly suited to evaluating the intricate dynamics of DM.

While the selected principles form the backbone of this study, other CAS principles, though valuable in broader contexts, were excluded to focus on the immediate dynamics of DR. Table 1 systematically outlines the rationale for inclusion and exclusion, ensuring a practical and analytically robust framework.

The principles of Feedback Loops, Self-Organization and Adaptability are central to understanding Morocco’s WoG response. These principles capture the dynamic interplay among governmental entities and external actors like NGOs and local communities. For example, feedback loops facilitated real-time information sharing between field units and command centers, enabling rapid adjustments to resource distribution. Self-organization allowed local communities to autonomously mobilize and address immediate needs, complementing centralized efforts. Adaptability was reflected in the system’s ability to reallocate resources and adjust operational priorities as disaster phases evolved.

Although principles like Nonlinearity and Co-evolution offer valuable insights in broader contexts, they were excluded to focus on the immediate dynamics of DR. Feedback Loops, Self-Organization and Adaptability capture the dynamic interplay among governmental entities, NGOs and local communities. For example, real-time information sharing between command centers and field units enabled rapid adjustments, whereas autonomous community efforts filled critical gaps. Adaptability allowed resource reallocation and operational prioritization as disaster phases evolved.

This study highlights Morocco’s capacity to integrate complex interdependencies, recalibrate strategies under uncertainty and innovate in high-pressure scenarios. By focusing on practical applications of CAS principles, it bridges theoretical insights with real-world practice, offering actionable recommendations for adaptive governance and disaster resilience in resource-constrained environments.

The alignment of our selected CAS principles with DM outcomes forms a robust framework for evaluating Morocco’s WoG response. By operationalizing these principles, the study bridges theoretical insights with practical evaluation, ensuring a thorough assessment of the framework’s effectiveness.

Table 2 outlines how each CAS principle aligns with specific research variables, offering clear definitions and measurable criteria. This structured approach emphasizes the interplay between CAS principles and DM variables, enabling a precise evaluation of the WoG framework’s strengths and areas for improvement.

This targeted framework highlights the operational dynamics of the WoG framework, offering actionable insights for enhancing DR strategies while maintaining a strong theoretical foundation.

The Moroccan DR framework is a cornerstone of this country’s approach to managing a variety of natural disasters, including floods, seismic activities, forest fires and landslides. Situated in Northwest Africa, Morocco’s diverse landscapes, from coastal plains to mountain ranges, necessitate a robust and adaptive DM strategy. Since 2015, Morocco has implemented an advanced regionalization plan, dividing the country into 12 administrative regions, each governed by a Regional Governor (Wali) appointed by the King. This administrative structure is further subdivided into prefectures and provinces, each led by a Governor, supported by local elected bodies such as regional and prefectural councils.

To effectively manage disasters, Morocco uses comprehensive strategies like the ORganisation des SECours (ORSEC), or Rescue Organization plan. Contrary to the common misconception, noted in studies like Ivčević et al. (2021), ORSEC is specific to Morocco’s DM system, distinct from “Organisation de la Réponse de SEcurité Civile.”

Since its establishment in 1970 and subsequent enhancements in 1983, further improved after the 2004 Al Hoceima earthquake, the ORSEC Plan includes the Monitoring and Coordination Center, established in 2007 for national-level response coordination. Updated in 2016, the plan now incorporates a system for managing postdisaster impacts through insurance and subsidies. In 2021, the National Strategy for Natural Disaster Risk Management (2020–2030) was integrated into ORSEC, focusing on risk assessment, prevention and efficient recovery.

Figure 1 illustrates the ORSEC Plan’s objectives, including establishing a proactive relief command structure, defining roles within a clear DR framework and systematically cataloging resources from interagency and private sectors.

The activation of the ORSEC Plan by Governors initiates the mobilization of critical resources and personnel, entailing the establishment of a Ministry-level Monitoring and Coordination Center for centralized decision-making. This process is reinforced by a Fixed Command Post at prefectural or provincial headquarters and an Operational Command Post near disaster sites, ensuring effective on-site management and coordination. This leads to the establishment of a dedicated structure ensuring a coordinated involvement of key actors across the territorial spectrum, as depicted in Figure 2.

In scenarios where a disaster’s magnitude exceeds the capacity of existing structures, the army’s involvement becomes essential, as mandated by Royal Decree N°1185-66. The army plays a critical role across multiple phases of DR under the Asset Deployment Plan. The integration of this plan into Morocco’s DR framework exemplifies the WoG approach, ensuring complementarity among national resources and the necessary interoperability across different operational levels. Figure 3 illustrates the army’s structured approach within the Asset Deployment Plan, facilitating a comprehensive and coordinated response to various disaster scenarios.

The army’s DM strategy, primarily conducted through the Monitoring and Surveillance Unit, involves strategic oversight and coordination with the Ministry of the Interior. Shifting from traditional military “command and control” models, the Asset Deployment Plan emphasizes Operational Command Chains and Coordination with Civil Authorities, fostering a more collaborative and civilian-oriented strategy.

This transition is pivotal in amalgamating military precision with civil administrative efficiency in DM contexts. Figure 4 shows the Royal Armed Forces’ strategy in responding to disasters under the Asset Deployment Plan framework.

In such circumstances, the development of effective coordination structures is crucial for maintaining situational awareness and bolstering civil–military operational synergy. At the Ministry level, the Monitoring and Coordination Center plays a pivotal role in coordinating various DR efforts and facilitating cross-departmental decision-making. This cooperative framework extends from the central government to regional, provincial and local levels, involving both military and civil authorities in established command posts and coordination centers. This integration is designed to ensure a rapid and efficient response at the ground level, as detailed in Figure 5.

The integration of military strategic capabilities with civilian administrative strengths in the ORSEC plan, tailored to address both natural and technological disasters, is fundamental to maintaining Morocco’s socioeconomic stability. Implementing the WoG approach not only effectively mitigates disaster impacts but also significantly enhances the country’s preparedness, responsiveness and recovery capacity. Through this integrated framework, Morocco establishes a standard in balancing strategic military involvement with proficient civil governance for optimal DR.

Overall, our research critically evaluates Morocco’s DR framework, using the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake as a case study to identify strengths and areas for improvement. Grounded in CAS principles, it operationalizes Feedback Loops, Self-Organization and Adaptability to assess Operational Effectiveness, Stakeholder Coordination and Adaptability and Flexibility. This integration offers a nuanced understanding of DR mechanisms, emphasizing dynamic interplay within the WoG framework and providing a solid foundation for Section 3, where these variables are rigorously analyzed with advanced tools.

Our research methodology for studying DM is grounded in a robust framework. We used a case study approach, guided by the frameworks of Vega’s (2018) framework, to critically analyze stakeholder dynamics and logistical challenges within the WoG framework during DR. This approach necessitated direct engagement with DM professionals and the local populations affected by the disaster, demanding our physical and emotional presence. We placed a strong emphasis on empathy and care, parallel to establishing robust data triangulation for a comprehensive analysis.

To ensure a well-rounded evaluation of the earthquake response, we formed an expert group, bridging the gap between academic research and practical application, aligning with Altay et al. (2021) and Kovács et al. (2018). Figures 6 and 7 visually represent our methodology, depicting our comprehensive research timeline and framework, respectively.

Our study uses a comprehensive data collection process to evaluate the WoG approach in response to the Al Haouz earthquake. Using a systematic methodology over a 25-day fieldwork period, we conducted site visits, interviews and surveys across the Marrakech-Safi and Souss-Massa regions.

Guided by the framework of Kunz et al. (2017), we integrated direct observations, content analysis and interviews to capture all critical components of Morocco’s WoG approach. The fieldwork covered 1,000 km across 20 urban and rural sites, including multilevel command posts, logistics structures, civilian medical facilities and Military Mobile Surgical Field Hospitals, focusing on assessing the effectiveness of Morocco’s DR framework during this crisis.

The development of our questionnaire is depicted in Figure 8, illustrating the process that began with the conceptual operationalization of our research questions and objectives. This foundational step translated our aims into specific core concepts essential for effective inquiry, ensuring the validity and relevance of the interviews by anchoring them in established literature. These core concepts subsequently informed the formulation of research objectives and the sequencing of interview questions (see  Appendix 1), accommodating a diverse array of respondents – including responders and recipients – across varying qualifications, functions and educational backgrounds.

Rather than adhering strictly to a formal interview format with rigid questions, we adopted a flexible approach that used the questions as a foundation for open-ended discussions. This approach encouraged interviewees to share their unique insights and perspectives, fostering richer dialogue and enhancing the depth and quality of the data collected.

In addition, local guides were instrumental in navigating cultural norms and language barriers, including Dialectal Arabic and Tachelhit, spoken in the High Atlas region. Besides, daily debriefings, accurate transcriptions and iterative analysis ensured meticulous documentation. Interviews were transcribed daily, with details verified within 48 h. Clarifications were sought when necessary, and proofreading involved cross-validation and random sampling to ensure data reliability. This rigorous process culminated in a comprehensive and representative narrative of the earthquake’s impact and the ongoing role of the WoG approach in DM.

Furthermore, the key to our data collection was a meticulous sampling strategy, integrating purposive and snowball techniques. For this purpose, selecting participants was a critical process, guided by the following criteria:

• Relevance: Participants included DM professionals and local earthquake survivors experiencing the disaster firsthand.

• Diversity and inclusivity: The sample included diverse demographics – gender, age, health, socioeconomic, urban/rural and ethnic/linguistic backgrounds.

• Transparency and fairness: Used random sampling to avoid biases and ensure balanced participant representation.

• Ethical considerations: Ensured informed consent, confidentiality, privacy and respect for cultural norms.

Finally, to address our dual objectives of generalizing findings to a broader population and gaining a nuanced understanding of DM evaluation at the individual level, we strategically selected a sample of 126 participants. The diverse group, including 33 earthquake survivors, provided valuable WoG approach insights, balancing diversity with manageable in-depth analysis.

Moreover, the research involved a 21-member expert panel, assembled progressively throughout our fieldwork, all possessing extensive experience in DM. Their diverse expertise and qualifications, respectively, highlighted and elaborated upon in  Appendix 2 and  3, proved essential in the evaluation of the DR framework, significantly enriching the clarity and relevance of our research findings.

Following our fieldwork, we conducted a rigorous 21-day process of meticulous data proofreading and quality control. Guided by Rath (2016), the process involved team discussions, peer debriefing and external peer reviews to ensure accuracy and reliability. We then initiated the data processing phase for structured organization, focusing on data categorization and clustering using TAMS Analyzer.

Figure 9 illustrates our systematic approach, enabling a nuanced and comprehensive analysis of DM dynamics within the WoG approach. As a result, we processed and organized 28 key elements related to the WoG framework, clustering them into nine main aspects (see  Appendix 4). These elements were analyzed through the lens of CAS principles, providing deeper insights into how these principles were operationalized within Morocco’s DM framework during the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake response.

To bridge the gap between theoretical frameworks and the practical realities encountered during the Al Haouz earthquake response, this study adopts a collaborative, multidimensional evaluation approach. The M-MACBETH methodology, as developed by Bana e Costa et al. (2016), serves as the core analytical tool, enabling the quantification of qualitative judgments. Recognizing that most members of the expert panel are practitioners with limited familiarity with theoretical concepts, CAS principles were simplified into actionable variables for greater accessibility and engagement.

The evaluation focuses on three key dimensions of the DR framework:

1. Operational Effectiveness;

2. Stakeholder Coordination; and

3. Adaptability and Flexibility.

These dimensions, previously defined as the study’s research variables, correspond directly to the CAS principles of Feedback Loops, Self-Organization and Adaptability. Each variable is distinct and independent, reflecting a separate critical aspect of the WoG approach.

The evaluation ensures that all components and key aspects of the response framework are analyzed, quantified and systematically prioritized. This approach is aligned with the methodological rigor required to integrate expert insights into a coherent and actionable framework.

Our recruited panel of experts, actively engaged in ongoing DM operations, was convened to conduct the evaluation, leveraging their expertise and firsthand insights for a comprehensive and contextually grounded assessment.

Despite logistical challenges – including connectivity issues in remote areas – the process spanned 28 days and used virtual meetings, telephone interviews and email exchanges. These structured interactions facilitated the following:

• Semantic precision: Experts provided clear, context-sensitive judgments on the components of the WoG framework.

• Pairwise comparisons: Participants assessed the relative importance and effectiveness of each component using pairwise evaluations.

• Consensus building: Through iterative discussions, the group reached an agreement on the significance and hierarchy of the WoG framework's elements.

Figure 10 illustrates the M-MACBETH evaluation process, showing how the methodology supports the systematic analysis of theoretical insights while maintaining alignment with the practical experiences of the expert panel. This approach ensures a balanced, detailed evaluation of the WoG framework.

Figure 11 illustrates the application of the WoG Evaluation Framework, integrating real-time data and expert assessments to measure effectiveness across the three study variables. Each variable was systematically analyzed, quantified and ranked based on expert perspectives, ensuring a comprehensive and stakeholder-driven evaluation. Leveraging the multicriteria decision-making (MCDM) methodology, specifically M-MACBETH, this process identified key successes and main challenges of the WoG approach, enabling the formulation of actionable recommendations to enhance disaster resilience and develop a stronger, more flexible DM system for future scenarios.

The earthquake that struck the High Atlas Mountains, spanning a 700-km range, presented unique challenges due to its rugged terrain, vulnerable infrastructure and disrupted transportation routes. Based on the Ministry of the Interior’s regular updates, Figure 12 highlights the extensive impact across Provinces, with a noted increase in fatalities and casualties between September 10 and 12, due to intensified rescue efforts and improved access.

In response, Moroccan authorities activated the WoG framework, coordinating military and civilian efforts. This included setting up multiple Command Posts across the three most impacted provinces (Al Haouz, Taroudant and Chichaoua), as depicted in Figure 13, which illustrates the WoG system’s informational, hierarchical and organizational structure.

Overall, following data organization and coding, the M-MACBETH evaluation provides an in-depth assessment of each WoG framework element. The results, presented in Figure 14, include a complete ranking of all 27 elements along with their respective Overall Impact Scores, highlighting the top three successes and weaknesses in the DR.

To maintain clarity and emphasize the most impactful factors, a structured prioritization process was applied. The top 10% of elements were categorized as “Key Successes,” whereas the bottom 10% were designated as “Main Challenges.” Because each element accounts for approximately 3.7% of the total, this threshold includes three elements, representing 11.1% of the total impact. This approach ensures a focused analysis of the most critical factors.  Appendix 5 and  6 provide further insights into the criteria and key aspect assessments.

Table 3 highlights these prioritized elements alongside their overall impact scores as determined by the expert group evaluation. The subsequent subsections succinctly analyze these achievements and challenges, offering a comprehensive depiction of the WoG framework’s performance within Morocco’s DM context.

The adopted WoG framework showcased its real-time adaptability to evolving challenges, exemplified by the coordination of military and civilian units and the spontaneous emergence of self-organizing networks among stakeholders. This highlighted the pivotal roles of diverse entities and the implementation of adaptive strategies, culminating in three key successes.

Indeed, the use of military aerial assets and advanced technology during the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake demonstrated the WoG framework’s capacity to manage operational complexity through adaptability and integration. These resources were not deployed as standalone tools but functioned within a dynamic system where their interactions significantly enhanced DR outcomes. As summarized in Table 4, the deployment of cargo aircraft, helicopters and drones highlights Morocco’s ability to effectively leverage military aerial capabilities within a civilian-led WoG framework.

These aerial assets aligned military and civilian efforts by providing a shared situational understanding, whereas communication resources, such as the RUDER network, ensured seamless information flow, including coordination with external actors like the Mohammed V Foundation. The system’s adaptability was evident in its recalibration of communication strategies and resource deployment to meet evolving challenges. The activation of RUDER, supplemented by satellite and fiber optic technologies, maintained uninterrupted connectivity even in remote areas. Signals battalions played also a critical role by inspecting and maintaining mission-critical communication systems, demonstrating the framework’s flexibility and capacity to integrate additional resources to address unforeseen complexities.

As shown in Figure 15, military aerial assets and advanced technologies strengthened the WoG framework’s efficiency, fostering real-time coordination, operational agility and strategic resource management.

In addition, the integration of resource deployment and logistics demonstrated the WoG framework’s capacity to address complexity through coordinated efforts by military SAR teams (primarily special forces), civil protection units, field surgical military hospitals and interdepartmental logistical support services, heavily reliant on military capabilities. Operating under a unified command structure, these entities harmonized decentralized, context-specific actions with overarching DM objectives. The WoG framework also engaged effectively with its broader environment, drawing on vital contributions from external actors like the Red Moroccan Crescent and the Mohammed V Foundation. These NGOs complemented governmental efforts, particularly in community engagement and resource mobilization. This interaction-driven approach optimized resource deployment fostered multistakeholder collaboration and enabled dynamic adaptation to evolving disaster conditions.

The WoG deployment (Figure 16) provided crucial relief to Al Haouz and Taroudant provinces via the Marrakech–Agadir axis and to Chichaoua province through the Chichaoua–Imindounit axis. Both axes encountered substantial challenges, including difficult access, predominantly mountainous terrain, and perilous, limited-capacity roads compared to the broader Moroccan road network. The Marrakech–Agadir axis followed the regional route 203 for 176 km, extending to the national route 10 for 136 km, featuring slightly flatter and less mountainous sections. In contrast, the Chichaoua–Imindounit axis, closer to Marrakech, faced complications due to unreliable and poorly maintained roads, specifically the provincial routes 2020 and 2038, covering a distance of 100 km.

Complementing this, Figure 17 illustrates the evacuation process, using both ground and air transport to tailor medical care based on each region’s accessibility challenges, further reinforcing the framework’s operational adaptability.

Figure 18 depicts the interplay between structured governmental responses and the adaptive complexity of Morocco’s response system, showcasing real-time adjustments to evacuation routes, supply chains and aid prioritization. This approach balanced centralized oversight with localized responsiveness, enabling an agile and cohesive WoG response.

Regarding the political response, this element underscores the strategic coordination at the core of the WoG framework. Given the limited engagement – or near-total passivity – of local elected officials and political parties during this critical period, structural vulnerabilities within the governance system became evident. Their minimal participation in response and recovery efforts highlighted an overreliance on centralized mechanisms and underscored the absence of robust institutional frameworks capable of effectively mobilizing local actors.

In this context, three strategic sessions chaired by the King on September 9, 14 and 20 exemplified a centralized governance approach to navigating the crisis. These sessions served as a unifying platform for civilian and military actors, facilitating strategic resource prioritization, rapid aid mobilization and cohesive planning for both immediate relief and sustainable recovery. Such high-level political engagement is indispensable for fostering coherence across interagency and interdepartmental operations, particularly when military capabilities constitute a central component of the response system.

As illustrated in Figure 19, while the centralized response effectively directed immediate relief efforts, it also illuminated the importance of integrated governance in mitigating the impacts of large-scale disasters.

During the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake, the WoG approach highlighted crucial areas for improvement across local preparedness, media narratives and the integration of civil-led aid. Despite the rapid mobilization of national resources, unprepared rural communities, the spread of misinformation and uncoordinated civilian efforts strained the DR.

Regarding local preparedness and response, the lack of policy foresight and insufficient investment in local infrastructure within remote, rural communities, exposed critical vulnerabilities in DR efforts.

Figure 20 highlights the adaptive challenges encountered during the WoG response to the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake and their direct impact on DM operations. It underscores the critical need to strengthen local preparedness and response capacities while fostering seamless coordination and adaptability across all levels.

Furthermore, the second main weakness is integration of civil-led aid. While public solidarity demonstrated its strength, it also highlighted significant challenges during the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake response. Figure 21 provides a detailed breakdown of the key issues that emerged from uncoordinated civilian efforts, emphasizing the need for more structured collaboration between community-led initiatives and the formal WoG framework.

Despite efforts from the Mohammed V Foundation for Solidarity to centralize relief efforts through warehouses and depots, the lack of alignment between civil society and national responders led to operational inefficiencies. Unorganized aid efforts created congestion in disaster zones, delaying SAR operations and obstructing resource distribution. The uneven allocation of aid across regions, with some areas receiving excessive supplies and others suffering shortages, further compounded these challenges.

In sum, while civil-led aid is vital in DM, a more cohesive integration strategy is necessary to prevent inefficiencies, optimize resource deployment and ensure seamless coordination among WoG stakeholders and their broader environment, including associations and citizen-led humanitarian convoys.

Finally, the third major weakness lies in media narratives and social media dynamics, which had both constructive and disruptive effects on the WoG response.

Social media not only mobilized relief efforts but also spread misinformation, causing confusion and eroding public trust. National media highlighted DM efforts, whereas international outlets occasionally focused on sensationalism, diverting attention from critical challenges. Local influencers added complexity by spreading conflicting information, making consistent messaging difficult. The Moroccan official press agency’s fact-checking efforts often fell short, as citizens lacked the habit or awareness to access the dedicated section on the agency’s official website. This limited public engagement in verifying information, which allowed misinformation to spread unchecked. The situation underscores the need for a robust, real-time communication strategy to align narratives across platforms, swiftly counter false information and maintain public trust. Figure 22 summarizes the key media-related challenges and their impact on the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake response.

The evaluation of Morocco’s WoG response to the Al Haouz earthquake, analyzed through CAS principles, provides critical insights into the operational strengths and systemic challenges encountered during DM. Feedback Loops, Self-Organization and Adaptability illuminate the intricate dynamics of centralized planning, decentralized execution and stakeholder coordination required to navigate rapidly evolving crises. Although the WoG framework demonstrated agility and responsiveness in addressing immediate needs, systemic vulnerabilities hindered its overall effectiveness.

Our analysis underscores the urgent need to strengthen localized systems to align actions with strategic plans, mitigate vulnerabilities and build long-term resilience. It also highlights the delicate balance required to integrate external actors, such as NGOs, into a cohesive governance framework while maintaining distinct roles and responsibilities.

Table 5 synthesizes these findings under each CAS principle, offering a structured analysis of achievements, challenges and actionable reforms.

These reforms aim to embed adaptive governance into operational structures, fostering a DM framework that is both cohesive and resilient, capable of effectively interacting with its broader environment.

In sum, addressing the identified systemic gaps necessitates a shift from a reactive WoG framework to a proactive and inclusive WoS model. By institutionalizing the proposed reforms, Morocco can build a DM system that not only addresses existing vulnerabilities but also embodies a global reference for adaptive governance. This transition offers a viable blueprint for middle-income nations navigating similarly complex crises, balancing centralized leadership with decentralized adaptability to foster resilience and efficiency.

The response to the Al Haouz earthquake underscores the intricate interplay of WoG framework, analyzed through CAS principles. It illustrates how Morocco’s self-reliance in DR serves as both a contextual strength and a critical test of WoG adaptability, offering valuable lessons for similarly situated and constrained nations.

Feedback Loops facilitated real-time recalibration of centralized priorities and resource allocation, enabling iterative adjustments to deployment strategies based on field updates. Self-organization enabled agencies to dynamically adapt to evolving demands, striking a balance between centralized directives and decentralized execution. Adaptability was evident during the transition from SAR operations to recovery, demonstrating the capacity of centralized leadership to guide systemic adjustments in response to evolving needs.

Despite these strengths, systemic gaps disrupted these mechanisms. Weak local preparedness and inadequate infrastructure heightened reliance on national resources, underlining the need for robust localized systems to build resilience. Fragmented coordination with civil efforts resulted in inefficiencies such as road congestion, unsolicited aid and redundancies. In addition, the limited integration of communication strategies challenged public trust and affected operational coherence.

To address these challenges, the study advocates transitioning from a WoG to an inclusive WoS framework rooted in CAS principles, proposing reforms to embed adaptive governance into operational structures. By institutionalizing these reforms, Morocco’s DM system – and those in similar middle-income, resource-constrained contexts – can effectively address systemic vulnerabilities while enhancing efficiency and inclusivity.

The study bridges the WoG approach with CAS theory, offering refined insights into DM frameworks by analyzing Morocco’s response to the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake. It demonstrates how centralized decision-making integrates with decentralized execution, advancing WoG models to reflect dynamic and adaptive governance. By operationalizing CAS principles – Feedback Loops, Self-Organization and Adaptability – within the WoG framework, the study aligns these principles with operational effectiveness, stakeholder coordination and adaptability and flexibility. This alignment enhances theoretical models, providing a nuanced lens to evaluate the interplay of governance and logistics in complex DR systems, aligning with Ortenzi et al. (2022) and Altay et al. (2024) on adaptive governance and systems-thinking in fostering disaster resilience.

Extending CAS theory to middle-income contexts, the study emphasizes adaptive governance and selective self-reliance in resource-constrained settings. It illustrates how CAS principles drive iterative learning, emergent collaboration and strategic recalibration during evolving crises, resonating with Comfort (2007) and Heaslip et al. (2019) on leadership and logistical agility. By incorporating external actors like NGOs and civil society into systemic interactions, the study advances WoG theory and highlights the need for permanent DM structures with specialized expertise. These findings enrich CAS and WoG frameworks, offering actionable insights for building resilience and responsiveness under socioeconomic constraints, furthering contributions by Besiou et al. (2021) and McEntire (2023).

Methodologically, the integration of M-MACBETH and CAS principles introduces an innovative dual-method approach to DM evaluation. By combining quantitative MCDM with qualitative CAS insights, the study ensures analytical rigor while addressing the complexities of resource-constrained environments. These methodological advancements refine the understanding of WoG dynamics and CAS theory in DM, offering practical frameworks for improving DR in middle-income countries like Morocco.

Practically, the findings advocate for institutional reforms, including the establishment of a National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) to strengthen multisectoral collaboration and operational resilience. The study also underscores the importance of aligning short-term humanitarian actions with long-term sustainable goals, echoing Besiou et al. (2018, 2021) and Tatham et al. (2017), who champion frameworks like the Humanitarian Common Logistics Operating Picture for streamlined operations. In addition, the proposed media management units (MMU) highlights the critical role of structured communication in fostering public trust and transparency, as emphasized by Lindell and Prater (2003) and Krishnappa et al. (2024).

In sum, this study uniquely explores CAS and WoG frameworks in Morocco, a middle-income country addressing DM challenges with limited international aid. Bridging theory and practice, it highlights the frameworks’ scalability and adaptability to socioeconomic constraints. By focusing on real-world governance under resource limitations, the research enriches CAS and WoG theory, offering actionable insights for fostering resilient DM systems and informing policymakers in similar contexts.

To address the gaps identified in Morocco’s WoG framework during the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake, we propose a multifaceted roadmap grounded in CAS principles (Table 6). This strategy fosters resilience by embedding robust feedback loops, promoting decentralized self-organization and enhancing adaptive capacity across the DM system.

Our roadmap emphasizes interagency cooperation and optimized resource allocation to ensure resilience in complex, multilayered disaster scenarios. It lays the foundation for a more agile and cohesive DR system, improving Morocco’s ability to respond to future crises.

Besides, Figure 23 presents the proposed organizational structure for Morocco’s emergency management system, with NEMA overseeing operations across 12 regions. This structure establishes a clear chain of command and fosters multistakeholder collaboration, balancing centralized leadership with regional autonomy to ensure smooth coordination at all levels. However, the framework faces potential barriers, such as bureaucratic resistance within existing government structures, which may delay its integration into the current DR framework. In addition, insufficient funding and resources could limit operational capacity amid competing national priorities and communities may resist initiatives perceived as undermining their autonomy.

A phased implementation approach is recommended to overcome these challenges, involving community consultations and pilot programs to foster local ownership. Figure 24 outlines the phased strategy for Regional Emergency Management Offices (REMOs), focusing on iterative testing and strategic adjustments.

Ultimately, launching such pilot programs, starting from high-risk regions, will help identify potential bottlenecks early, enabling targeted improvements and enhancing stakeholder coordination. This gradual approach will ensure effective REMO expansion, increasing preparedness and resilience in Morocco and similar countries seeking to strengthen their DM strategies.

This study offers valuable insights into the operationalization of Morocco’s WoG approach during the 2023 Al Haouz earthquake, presenting lessons with global relevance for DM. By applying CAS theory, the research illustrates how adaptive frameworks like WoG effectively respond to large-scale crises. Feedback loops, self-organization and adaptability facilitated rapid adjustments to evolving challenges, validating key CAS principles.

The findings highlight notable successes, particularly the seamless interagency deployment supported by strong military contributions and orchestrated through decisive political leadership. However, the study also exposes the limitations of centralized coordination, especially in resource-constrained environments, where flexibility and local responsiveness are essential. It emphasizes the need for more resilient preparedness strategies, inclusive frameworks and adaptive communication and media management to confront future crises.

A key takeaway is the importance of balancing centralized authority with decentralized, community-driven initiatives to foster adaptability and resilience. Combining national leadership with local engagement, this hybrid model holds particular relevance for similar contexts across Africa, Asia and Latin America. Further research on WoG frameworks across diverse governance models and disaster types is crucial, with comparative studies offering essential lessons to enhance global disaster preparedness.

Ultimately, advancing toward a WoS approach will be pivotal for achieving sustainable DM by reinforcing regional and local preparedness, promoting active community participation, enhancing civil society integration and implementing a robust communication strategy with improved media engagement. By bridging theory and practice, we hope this real-time evaluation meaningfully contributes to the development of a more conceptually coherent and empirically grounded DM framework, tailored to the specific needs of Morocco and other middle-income countries facing similar disaster risks, socioeconomic vulnerabilities and infrastructural challenges.

The authors extend their gratitude to the expert group who participated in this project and all respondents who agreed to be interviewed, particularly during the rush of earthquake management efforts.

Table A1 

Figure A1 

Table A2 

Figure A2 

Figure A3 

Figure A4