Mitigating not-invented-here syndrome in consultant knowledge transfer by developing appropriate implementation guidelines

The present research would like to contribute to the established theoretical stream of knowledge transfer. Knowledge transfer is an important area of knowledge management that is seen as a basis for competitive advantage in companies (Argote and Ingram, 2000; Goh, 2002). Specifically, the need for an organization to successfully transfer and absorb external knowledge has been clearly recognized in exploring innovative products and business opportunities (Laursen and Salter, 2006; Lichtenthaler, 2011). Knowledge transfer can be defined as “an area of knowledge management concerned with the movement of knowledge across the boundaries created by specialised knowledge domains” (Liyanage et al., 2009, p. 122, based on Carlile and Rebentisch, 2003). In other words, “the conveyance of knowledge from one place, person or ownership [knowledge provider] to another [knowledge receiver]” is achieved (Liyanage et al., 2009, p. 122). For knowledge transfer to be successful, the receiver must accumulate or assimilate new knowledge (Liyanage et al., 2009).

Consultant intervention ^[1] is a specific type of knowledge transfer between the consultant (knowledge provider) and the client (knowledge recipient) (based on Jones et al., 2023; Kilmann and Mitroff, 1979; Pellegrinelli, 1997). Consultants (academic researchers, independent consultants or consultant companies) are hired by clients to transfer knowledge from their expertise domain (Ko, 2010). In fact, a management consultant can be defined as “an independent professional advisory service assisting managers and organizations to achieve organizational purposes and objectives by solving management and business problems, identifying and seizing new opportunities, enhancing learning and implementing changes” (Kubr, 2002, p. 10). As such, consultants play a significant role in the innovation success of companies [e.g. in organizational innovation (Simao and Franco, 2018) and open innovation (Oliva et al., 2022)].

Consultants can use various knowledge transfer tools (i.e. artifacts) to enact knowledge transfer (Engeström, 1999; Korbi and Chouki, 2017). Implementation guidelines (IGs) are one type of these tools usually provided by experts in the relevant field. IGs are a result of the design science research – DSR (van Aken, 2004; van Aken et al., 2016; Dresch et al., 2019; Hevner et al., 2004) and are developed to transfer accumulated knowledge from a specific research field into practice (Suzić et al., 2018a, 2018b). Since IGs are a written set of information and instructions for a specific concept implementation, they are not necessarily effective on their own (Bokinge and Malmqvist, 2012); they need to be properly used during the consultant intervention in an organizational setting and through human-to-human interaction to transfer knowledge (Figure 1). The characteristics of the IGs define the settings for the consultant intervention. Thus, although “[a] key component of IGs is how they are enacted” (Coughlan and Coghlan, 2008, p. 49), the final impact of the consultant intervention not only depends on the consultant’s behavior during the intervention but is also conditioned by the characteristics of the IGs used.

Consultant interventions are not done in a vacuum, instead they “are set within existing frames of reference, beliefs, commitments and action patterns of their client organisations” (Pellegrinelli, 2002, p. 351). Moreover, achieving successful knowledge transfer is not easy (Argote and Ingram, 2000) and results vary between contexts and organizations (Argote, 1999; Szulanski, 1996). The literature on knowledge transfer also recognizes that “[t]he nature of the relationship between the knowledge recipients and the source of knowledge [knowledge provider] can sometimes be a barrier to effective knowledge transfer” (Goh, 2002, p. 27).

In fact, the research in social psychology shows that during the interaction with external entities and objects (in consultant intervention: consultant and IGs) attitudes of individuals (i.e. clients) “often affect decision making and lead to biased behavior” (Antons and Piller, 2015, p. 194 based on Ajzen, 2001; Bohner and Wänke, 2002). The most frequently mentioned bias in knowledge transfer that influences individual decision-making is the not-invented-here (NIH) syndrome first recorded by Clagett (1967). NIH syndrome is defined as “a bias triggered by the negatively shaped attitude of an individual toward knowledge that has to cross a contextual (disciplinary), spatial or organizational (functional) boundary, resulting in either its suboptimal utilization or its rejection as behavioral consequences of this attitude bias” (Antons and Piller, 2015, p. 197, based on Clagett, 1967; Kathoefer and Leker, 2012; Katz and Allen, 1982; Lichtenthaler and Ernst, 2006). Accordingly, the independent management consultant is seen as contextually, organizationally and sometimes spatially distinct from the client.

The relevance of the consultant intervention, NIH syndrome and IGs as separate research streams is confirmed by the attention researchers have given them. However, what has been reported above suggests that considering the three streams jointly we could get theoretical advancements important for practice. More specifically, we argue that the issue of NIH appearance hindering knowledge transfer from consultants to clients (i.e. consultant intervention) and the means how to do it (i.e. IGs) is relevant equally to independent consultants, consulting companies and academic researchers doing consultant interventions, client organizations and finally to the policymakers who are promoting knowledge transfer from research institutions to industry.

The research gap we are targeting, therefore, is positioned on the intersection of consultant intervention, NIH and IGs bodies of research (Figure 2). To better understand the need for researching this intersection, we can consider the limitations of the investigations that adopt each single stream’s point of view. On the one hand, there is the knowledge transfer and consultant intervention literature that recognizes the importance of NIH mitigation for the effectiveness of knowledge transfer (Amann et al., 2022; Antons et al., 2017; Antons and Piller, 2015; Barakat et al., 2022; Clagett, 1967; Kathoefer and Leker, 2012; Katz and Allen, 1982; Marzi et al., 2023). However, the knowledge transfer stream of research overlooks IGs as potential tools for mitigating NIH in client companies, focusing instead on the consultant–client interaction to mitigate NIH. Albeit, some authors have recognized the importance of various artifacts for knowledge transfer (Engeström, 1999; Korbi and Chouki, 2017). On the other hand, IGs are tools developed to transfer accumulated knowledge from a specific research field into practice (Suzić et al., 2018a, 2018b), so designed for knowledge transfer through consultant interventions. IGs research stream calls for IGs with specific characteristics (Coughlan and Coghlan, 2008; Ortiz et al., 1999; Rouhani et al., 2015), and for IGs to contain certain building blocks and clearly defined and presented implementation instructions (Suzić et al., 2018a, 2018b). However, these characteristics and building blocks do not consider the possibility of NIH appearance as a consequence of IGs developed in a certain way. So, the IGs research stream aimed to support consultant interventions does not focus on NIH mitigation during the use of IGs, even though there are some articles mentioning resistance to change as a possible hindrance factor that can arise during the consultant intervention (Kudsk et al., 2013). Thus, the disconnectedness of the three research fields is somewhat puzzling, since IGs are tools developed for consultant interventions, which in turn have a goal to transfer knowledge to the clients without the appearance of NIH.

A review we conducted on the relevant bodies of research showed that three main concepts (i.e. consultant intervention, NIH syndrome and IGs), although recognized as highly relevant and with rich research streams, have not been studied in ensemble and remain virtually disconnected (Figure 2). Nevertheless, we are convinced that it has little meaning to develop IGs without thinking about the possibility of rejection of the transferred knowledge (i.e. NIH). Vice versa, it has little meaning dealing with the NIH mitigation if IGs are developed in a way to lead to NIH appearance. Specifically, a theory on how to develop appropriate IGs that would mitigate NIH during the consultant intervention is missing.

Accordingly, we set the objective of the present research as follows:

In the present research, we fulfill the stated objective by conceptualizing an NIH-mitigating IG development framework. Besides the five principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs, the framework provides operationalization of the principles, as well as an exemplification of the consultant’s behavior, which should support knowledge transfer by preventing NIH syndrome. We suggest that IG developers should be guided by these principles when developing IGs to effectively mitigate NIH syndrome during a consultant intervention.

We follow a DSR approach (van Aken, 2004; van Aken et al., 2016; Hevner et al., 2004) – that is comprised of exploratory ^[2] and explanatory ^[3] parts (Holmström et al., 2009). Specifically, the exploratory phase has been covered in previous research reported by Suzic and Forza (2023) where specific IGs have been developed and tested in the course of two consultant interventions. Based on rich primary data from these consultant interventions, we proceed with the explanatory research part and through theory building propose our framework. The research conducted is qualitative with the use of abductive ^[4] and deductive ^[5] reasoning (Mantere and Ketokivi, 2013). Thus, while using collected empirical evidence to abductively theorize different models for IGs development, we deductively derive our mid-range theory in the form of NIH-mitigating IG development framework from general theory of NIH attitude functions (Antons and Piller, 2015). Finally, we conduct a mapping exercise (drawing on Whetten’s concept of mental tests – Whetten (1989) ^[6]) by revisiting the unpublished primary data from two consultant interventions to identify and describe the mechanisms that support enactment of the NIH-mitigating principles for IG development.

The contributions of the present study are manyfold. Specifically, we propose that the NIH-mitigating IG development framework:

• can enable subject matter experts to develop IGs that are, by their design, capable of mitigating NIH syndrome during the consultant intervention;

• proposes a proactive rather than reactive approach to NIH mitigation;

• represents an operationalization of the NIH attitude functions framework – essentially being the first framework to systematically address the issue of inappropriate development of IGs; and

• changes the current understanding of NIH syndrome appearance in consultant intervention by tracking the source of consultancy-induced NIH syndrome back to the development of the IGs.

Finally, through in-depth analysis of two consultant interventions (primary empirical data), the present study identifies and describes mechanisms that lead to NIH mitigation, supporting in this way the future development of DSR artifacts for knowledge transfer that can prevent appearance of NIH in consultant interventions.

The remainder of this article is organized into four sections. Section 2 positions the research within the relevant literature on consultant intervention (as a type of knowledge transfer), NIH syndrome and IGs. Section 3 provides information on research design and the methods used in the research. Section 4 proposes NIH-mitigating IG development framework. Finally, in Section 5, the main contributions of the research are discussed, the research limitations are addressed and possibilities for future research are proposed.

The present section’s goal is twofold. First, we make an effort to communicate the research focus, especially exhibiting how the present research differs from the available literature on NIH mitigation. Second, we review three relevant bodies of research (i.e. consultant intervention, NIH syndrome and IGs) which create our research gap (Figure 2) in an effort to make some initial connections between these mostly disconnected bodies of research.

It is important to emphasize that the available NIH literature focuses on NIH mitigation during the consultant intervention (Antons and Piller, 2015; Clagett, 1967; Kathoefer and Leker, 2012; Katz and Allen, 1982; Lichtenthaler and Ernst, 2006) – Figure 3. This means that, although many times implicit, the literature proposes a reactive NIH mitigation (the upper part of Figure 3) – that is mitigation of NIH when the consultant is already in the company. Thus, we can say that in this view IGs development stays invisible and is practically neglected for the purposes of NIH mitigation.

The present research diverges from the available literature on NIH mitigation by shifting the focus from the consultant–client interaction to the development of the IGs themselves (the lower part of Figure 3). We argue that the first instance in which NIH syndrome can be mitigated in a consultant intervention is during the development of the IGs (Figure 3). In this way, we focus on applying a proactive approach to NIH mitigation. The rest of the research should be seen with this proactive approach to NIH mitigation in mind.

The research gap as well as the main contribution of present research is positioned at the intersection of the three key concepts on which we built the theoretical basis: consultant intervention, NIH syndrome and IGs. The literature review showed that papers collectively addressing all three key concepts are missing. Thus, to set the theoretical background stage and position our research, in the present section, we review the available literature (Rowley and Slack, 2004; Seuring and Gold, 2012; Tranfield et al., 2003) that is focused on pairs of the key concepts, namely:

• consultant intervention and NIH syndrome;

• NIH syndrome and IGs; and

• consultant intervention and IGs (Figure 2).

Thus, in the present research, we focused on the intersection of these three notions, but before making the valuable propositions that encompass all three of them, we will first discuss them in pairs and create initial links with the third one.

Management consultancy is an important research field with an impact on small and large businesses alike (Da Costa et al., 2022; Hu et al., 2019; Jones et al., 2023). Cerruti et al. (2019), in an extensive review of management consulting literature, clustered the research field into three main areas: the consultant–client (C–C) relationship, drivers of management consultancy success and clients’ demands, together with their perception of the consultant’s role. In the present research, we are interested in the dynamics and aftermath of this C–C complex interaction (Karantinou and Hogg, 2001), observing how the activities that they carry out together result in organizational change. The complexity of the C–C relationship is exacerbated by the fact that it involves actors at different levels – both at an individual, personal level, where the consultant personally influences the client as a knowledge broker or a standards setter (Canato and Giangreco, 2011), and at the organizational level, where the consulting company and the client company engage in a mutual project to enact organizational change (Pellegrin-Boucher, 2006).

At its core, the C–C relationship is a transmission between a “knowledge provider” and a “knowledge receiver” (Avakian et al., 2010). In the broadest sense, knowledge is transmitted from a source to a recipient (Weaver and Shannon, 1964), and, according to basic communication theory, as long as there is no significant “noise” in the system, the transmission will be successful. However, this theory does not consider the effect of the transmission – there is no interest in what the recipient does with the received knowledge after the transmission has been labeled successful. When humans communicate, myriad factors influence the final result of the transaction (Thomas and Carroll, 1981), and in the present research, we are especially interested in how the receiver evaluates the knowledge that was transferred, because this evaluation will surely influence the potential use of that knowledge. Research in the fields of innovation management, consultancy and human resource management has examined numerous cases in which human subjects have evaluated newly received knowledge as inferior to their own, not because they found that knowledge to be of questionable inherent value but merely because they considered the source of that knowledge as “external” and, thus, discredited the whole transaction process (Burcharth and Fosfuri, 2015).

This perception of “external” knowledge may lead to NIH syndrome, which was first elaborated by Clagett (1967). He witnessed frequent miscommunication and a lack of understanding between the product and development departments and other business units in a company and suspected that employees frequently build invisible barriers to fend off knowledge that they perceive as threatening to their current status quo. Thus, NIH syndrome was first recorded in knowledge transfer inside one organization.

Notably, the knowledge transfer literature recognizes the importance of NIH syndrome mitigation for successful knowledge transfer to occur. For example, Katz and Allen (1982) conducted an empirical study of the influence of NIH syndrome in stable project teams’ communication with external sources of knowledge. Lichtenthaler et al. (2010) introduce an NIH-related concept of not-sold-here (NSH) that helps explain the varying degrees of activity in external knowledge exploitation. Buenstorf and Geissler (2012) research NIH in relation to technology transfer and patent licensing. Kathoefer and Leker (2012, p. 658) examine “the influence of the research discipline, the scientific output, the attitude towards basic science and the project experience on NIH by analyzing a sample of 166 Austrian professors from the fields of physics and engineering.” Dabrowska and Savitskaya (2014) identify NIH as one of the key challenges in managing open innovation that have cultural roots. Arp and Lemański (2016, p. 257) study the negative impact that NIH has on “the mobility of ideas between multinational corporation (MNC) headquarters and subsidiaries.” Building on their pivotal study on NIH in knowledge transfer (Antons and Piller, 2015) – which we present in detail later on – Antons et al. (2017) proceed with the development of measurements for NIH repeating that NIH “has been called one of the largest obstacles in innovation management.” Weissenberger-Eibl and Hampel (2021) conducted a recategorizational intervention on the basis of the common in-group identity model to change employees’ attitudes toward external knowledge. Amann et al. (2022) conducted a study to understand NIH and NSH in corporate innovation hubs on the absorption of external knowledge and toward sharing of internal knowledge externally. Barakat et al. (2022) research the effect of NIH on the absorption of knowledge generated by subsidiaries of multinational corporations. Finally, Marzi et al. (2023) study NIH in the context of willingness or reluctance to adopt open innovation in SMEs.

However, the knowledge transfer literature, in general, and consultant intervention literature, in particular (Jones et al., 2023; Kilmann and Mitroff, 1979; Pellegrinelli, 1997, 2002; Ward et al., 2009), do not deal with the IGs development. Thus, the link between the knowledge transfer and NIH syndrome on the one side and IGs on the other side is missing in the available literature.

Notably, NIH syndrome is not a phenomenon reserved to management consultancy and consultant interventions. For example, the critical effect of the externality of knowledge has been reported in research on open innovation where “a company commercializes both its own ideas as well as innovations from other firms [external knowledge]” (Chesbrough, 2003, p. 37) to remain competitive (Cricelli et al., 2023). Thus, in open innovation, like in consultant intervention, external knowledge is used to innovate products or processes. However, still many open innovation endeavors fail (Cricelli et al., 2023; Dabić et al., 2023). Specifically, Cricelli et al. (2023) conducted a broad analysis of the literature aimed to prevent the failure of open innovation initiatives. They conclude that, among causes related to the organizational culture, NIH syndrome is the main one leading to the failure of open innovation initiatives. Furthermore, Dabić et al. (2023, p. 6) argue that NIH has a “high potential to impact open innovation adoption negatively.” Thus, the transfer of external knowledge is generally prone to NIH syndrome appearance.

Recently, in an effort to deeply understand NIH syndrome, Antons and Piller (2015) performed a comprehensive review of the NIH literature and identified three dimensions of knowledge externality that could lead to NIH syndrome: contextual, organizational and spatial (Table 1). Contextual externality considers the discipline from which the knowledge originates. Organizational externality considers the case where knowledge transferred from different organizations is seen as external. Finally, spatial externality refers to the geographic distance between the knowledge source and the receiver. Antons and Piller suggested that these three dimensions of knowledge externality create eight types of knowledge transfer, where “Type 1” is knowledge transfer that is completely internal, and “Type 8” is knowledge transfer that is completely external (i.e. knowledge is perceived as external in all three dimensions).

Interestingly, the consultant intervention falls into some of the least advantageous knowledge transfer types – Type 7 and Type 8 (Table 1). In Type 7 knowledge transfer, a consultant contextually comes from another discipline – for example, management – while the client might be from an engineering background. Even when a consultant comes from the same discipline as the client (e.g. they all have an engineering background), a consultant can be seen as coming from a different discipline by virtue of being a “consultant.” In terms of organizational boundaries, the consultant is clearly not part of the company, so the consultant’s knowledge is external. In Type 7, the spatial boundary is not active if the consultant is present in the company during the consultant intervention. As for the Type 8, external knowledge penetrates the client organization with even more difficulty because of high resistance in the client organization when all three boundaries act on the knowledge transfer process. Specifically, in Type 8, a consultant is also regarded as external from a spatial dimension point of view (e.g. doing the consultancy remotely).

The knowledge transfer is done with the use of knowledge transfer tools. According to Korbi and Chouki (2017, p. 1277) “to reduce knowledge-transfer difficulties, actors can resort to mediation through tools that facilitate discussion, learning, managing activities and innovation.” Furthermore, Korbi and Chouki (2017), building on Engeström (1999), refer to knowledge transfer tools as artifacts. Mariano and Awazu (2016), in their effort to systemize the knowledge on artifacts in the field of knowledge management, specify that artifacts have been labeled differently by different knowledge management researchers.

For the purposes of the research design clarity, in the present research, we see artifacts (including IGs) as a result of the DSR approach (van Aken, 2004; van Aken et al., 2016; Dresch et al., 2019; Hevner et al., 2004). Implementation guidelines IGs are a type of artifact used for knowledge transfer. These are artifacts that are developed to transfer accumulated knowledge from a specific research field into practice (Suzić et al., 2018a, 2018b). They present an important output of scientific research and consultant activity because they enable structured knowledge transfer from consultants (academic researchers, independent consultants or consultant companies) to industry.

The IGs research stream defines how effective IGs should look like (Suzić et al., 2018a). For example, researchers argue that IGs should be normative (Coughlan and Coghlan, 2008; Rouhani et al., 2015), actionable (Coughlan and Coghlan, 2008; Ortiz et al., 1999; Rouhani et al., 2015) and generalizable (Coughlan and Coghlan, 2008; Ortiz et al., 1999; Rouhani et al., 2015). Furthermore, the research identified properties for development of the effective IGs, namely, the holistic guidelines, the context-dependent and the detailed and user-friendly properties (Suzić et al., 2018a). Further on, Suzić et al. (2018a) identified IG building blocks in the available IGs (e.g. concept overviews and definitions, implementation instructions, required resources, as-is analysis tools, etc.). Notably, most of the IGs provide a premade sequence of the concept implementation, providing in detail the order in which various initiatives (i.e. enablers) should be implemented (e.g. Blecker and Abdelkafi, 2006) – for research that derails from this sequence prescription look at Hernandez et al. (2003), and Suzic and Forza (2023). Suzić et al. (2018a) refer to this trend as the use of sequential logic, while Caldwell and Dyer (2020) call this approach a programmatic approach, where solutions for a concept implementation are premade without the client’s participation. Some IGs point out hindrance factors to look out for when conducting the consultant intervention (e.g. Hanafy and ElMaraghy, 2015; Ismail et al., 2007; Kudsk et al., 2013). However, from these hindrance factors, only resistance to change could be implicitly connected to NIH syndrome (Kudsk et al., 2013). Notably, the relevant IG literature does not identify NIH as a specific hindrance factor that should be taken into consideration when developing IGs (based on Suzić et al., 2018a). However, in the discussion of their literature review in IG field, Suzić et al. (2018a, p. 866) point out that the “future developed […] [implementation guidelines] should help managers to prevent the negative effects of the hindrance factors and in explaining both their negative effects and possible ways to prevent them.” In their later research Suzic and Forza (2023, p. 554) move closer to the notion on NIH syndrome pointing out the opportunity regarding “the behavioural-related issue that arises with the use of the proposed [implementation guidelines]” and possibility to use IGs for “reducing the resistance to change that is present to varying extents in all individuals and organizations.” However, once again, the authors failed to frame their IG research in terms of general NIH theory.

IGs as a tool used for a consultant intervention, are artifacts that can enable or limit the consultant in conducting a successful intervention in a company (Caldwell and Dyer, 2020; Suzic and Forza, 2023). This is because, depending on how they are developed and used, IGs can enable and support knowledge transfer during a consultant intervention, or they can hamper it (Caldwell and Dyer, 2020), resulting in NIH syndrome (Antons and Piller, 2015). In other words, IGs are the foundation upon which the consultant’s work with the client is built.

The NIH research stream implies that to mitigate NIH syndrome during a consultant intervention, the client should not have the impression that a solution was coined elsewhere (Antons and Piller, 2015; Clagett, 1967). Rather, the highly desired future improvement should stem from rich and meaningful cooperation between the two sides.

As already stated, a management consultant can be defined as “an independent professional advisory service” (Kubr, 2002, p. 10). As such, the consultant’s act of introducing a new concept to a company may come with a serious challenge: the consultant’s advice could be rejected because it proposes premade solutions that were written elsewhere, effectively resulting in NIH syndrome within the company.

Caldwell and Dyer (2020, p. 943), for example, recorded that “the [clients’ of a consultant intervention experienced] tensions between the prescriptions of the LSS [Lean Six Sigma] methodology and their ‘knowing and doing’ approach to action, learning and practice.” This example shows the appearance of NIH syndrome in a case in which the IGs were generated outside the company.

We can conclude that, although rich and developed, IGs research stream does not focus on NIH mitigation during the use of IGs in consultant intervention, or on developing IGs that would prevent the NIH appearance during the knowledge transfer in the client company. In other words, although there is IG research that points out that “[a] key component of IGs is how they are enacted” (Coughlan and Coghlan, 2008, p. 49), the NIH syndrome and the importance of IGs developed so that they are effective in knowledge transfer and NIH mitigation, remain out of the scope of the IG research stream.

The role of knowledge transfer tools (i.e. artifacts) for effective knowledge transfer is recognized by the literature (Engeström, 1999; Korbi and Chouki, 2017). IGs are a specific type of knowledge transfer tools that are developed to transfer accumulated knowledge from a specific research field into practice (Suzić et al., 2018a, 2018b). Thus, IGs are developed specifically to conduct consultant interventions. Moreover, the characteristics of the IGs define the settings and the final effect of the consultant intervention.

However, we found only a few articles that address consultancy and IGs in combination. The most pertinent work for the present research is Caldwell and Dyer (2020, p. 942), who stated that “[t]he prevailing assumption is that knowledge of the change process is already standardised, codified and commercially proven and that implementation can be managed within fixed project timelines.” Put in the terms of the present research, Caldwell and Dyer say that the prevailing assumption in the literature and in practice is that the IGs used by consultants are expected to provide plans for a specific concept implementation that were conceived outside the company and without the clients participation. The authors further stated that “[t]he core presupposition of these programmatic approaches to change is that knowledge transfer can be “enacted” in practice through prescribed rules, standards, routines, project plans and methodologies” (Caldwell and Dyer, 2020, p. 942). We read these “programmatic approaches” as the use of IGs to develop implementation plans (IPs) ^[7] without the clients’ participation. Other research that conducted deep analyses of IGs (Suzić et al., 2018a, 2018b) – specifically for mass customization (MC) implementation– is in line with the claims of Caldwell and Dyer (2020). In the cited studies on MC IGs, none of the 20 analyzed IGs had planned the possibility of including clients in the development of the IPs. Thus, it seems that the IG research stream predominantly provides premade IPs for consultant interventions.

These premade solutions for IPs have been already criticized in the management literature (although not always using the same terminology). For example, when studying the implementation of operations management best practices, Sousa and Voss (2008, p. 698) stated that an explanation for difficulties in best practices implementation could come “from too great a mismatch between the proposed form of best practice and the particular organizational context” – where best practices represent premade solutions. In their study focused on MC Svensson and Barfod (2002, p. 88) said that “it is necessary for every company to develop its own development plan which will help to move in the direction towards mass customization” (italics added). So, in a way, the study suggests the participation of clients in the development of IPs. Staying in the field of MC, Salvador et al. (2009, p. 1558) stated that “[m]anagers need to tailor the approach in ways that make the most sense for their specific businesses” (italic added), again pointing out a need that clients (i.e. company managers) should be able to influence the way that MC is implemented in their companies. Suzić et al. (2018a, p. 867), addressing the managers (i.e. clients) warn of the rigidity of available IPs that were developed outside the client company by stating that the sequential models (i.e. premade IPs) available in literature should be approached with a “critical mind since […] [these premade IPs] could be too rigid and insensitive for individual company situation.”

Finally, Suzic and Forza (2023, p. 552) is the only study found to openly promote client participation in IP development concluding that “enactments of the […] implementation plans were self-motivated” and that IPs were effective since they were developed “in close collaboration with company staff [clients], [and] not by proposing solutions prepared in advance.” This study provides us with a hint of the effect that participative IP development had in two conducted consultant interventions.

We found several papers that are relevant, although to a lesser extent, to consultancy and IGs in combination, even though not directly addressing the topic of the present research. In chronological order, Bronnenmayer et al. (2016), while researching the determinants of management consultant success, identified “intensity of collaboration” as one of the main factors in perceived management consulting success. This intensity of collaboration is relevant to how consultants use IGs. Dutta and Kumar (2022) explore the processes through which knowledge creation occurs during enterprise resource planning (ERP) software implementation and how external consultants help to operationalize it. Specifically, they analyzed the four modes of knowledge conversion (i.e. the SECI model: socialization, externalization, combination and internalization) during consultant-supported ERP implementation. Suoniemi et al. (2022) looked into the conditions under which consultant involvement in customer relationship management systems implementation can lead to benefits to the company. Finally, Chowdhury (2023) argued for methodological flexibility in the application of systems thinking used for consultant interventions.

The role of IGs in consultant interventions, therefore, has received limited attention. By showing the relevance of IGs in mitigating the NIH effect in consultant interventions, we will provide additional motivations for further investigation of this topic which is highly relevant for practice.

The present research is following the DSR approach. Specifically, the research follows the four DSR phases proposed by Holmström et al. (2009), where first two phases are design science oriented, and the last two are explanatory and theory building oriented (Figure 4). The present research deals with the second and the third phase, with major focus on the theory building Phase 3.

The “solution incubation” (Phase 1) deals with the development of the initial solution design of the artifact. The “solution refinement” (Phase 2) deals with the empirical testing and refinement of the developed artifact. Also, in Phase 2 the cooptation of the unintended consequences is done to take into consideration the feedback from the empirical testing to refine the artifact. The first two phases were conducted as a part of the research that has been reported in Suzic and Forza (2023).

Exploratory and explanatory parts of the DSR approach are complementary (Holmström et al., 2009). The exploratory part of the research seeks to develop an artifact aimed at solving a class of problems (van Aken, 2004). Solutions proposed at the end of Phase 2 have limited generalizability, but create a base that will support the building of the theory in Phases 3 and 4 (Holmström et al., 2009).

In Phase 3, the artifact that was field tested previously is reviewed in the context of the previously existing research in the relevant research field(s). This enables the development of the mid-range theory, that seeks the relevance of the findings from Phases 1 and 2 (Holmström et al., 2009). “[T]he aim of the Mid-range theories is to develop a deeper understanding of a theory in a specific context of application” (Holmström et al., 2009) – which in our case is the consultant intervention done with the use of IGs.

The current research does not include the Phase 4 (Figure 4) from Holmström et al. (2009). Thus, the present research does not seek to propose a formal theory but rather stops at proposing a mid-range theory in the form of an NIH-mitigating IG development framework in the context of consultant intervention as a specific type of knowledge transfer.

Notably, the DSR-based research can take a long time and is often done in multiple iterations spanning long periods of time (usually multiple years or even more) and multiple publications (e.g. Akkermans et al., 2019; Ivert and Jonsson, 2014). In the present subsection, we present in brief also the research phases that preceded the present work, and subsequently, we focus on the work done for the present research. We do this to provide a clear overview of the phases that led to the present research and to facilitate the communication of the research done. The present research is a continuation of the research published in Production Planning and Control (Suzic and Forza, 2023). Specifically, Figure 5 (i.e. a concretization of the DSR approach presented in Figure 4) shows three research phases performed (based on Holmström et al., 2009). The first two phases were conducted as a part of a previous study (Suzic and Forza, 2023) – Figure 5. Contributions of these two phases include the original artifact development (Phase 1), and artifact testing and refinement (Phase 2). The third phase, which is the theory building, is done in the present research (Phase 3) and its main contribution is the proposed NIH-mitigating IG development framework. Noticeably, the present study has its roots in Phase 2 where, as a part of unintended consequences (Holmström et al., 2009), the first impacts of IGs on the mitigation of NIH were observed. This consequence was later revisited and the current research is the result of theory building based on these findings from Phase 2.

The goal of the initial study (Suzic and Forza, 2023) was to develop IGs for implementing MC in small and medium enterprises (SMEs). The research was motivated by recorded lack of IGs for MC implementation (MC–IGs) suitable for SMEs. This is where our initial DSR study started. The newly developed IGs were proposed in Phase 1 of the research (Figure 5). In Phase 2, the developed artifact was tested in two consultant interventions in case companies through observational evaluation. Observational evaluation is a method for evaluating the artifacts developed through DSR that uses the case study to “[s]tudy [the] artifact in depth in [a] business environment” as well as the elements of the field study to “[m]onitor [the] use of artifact in multiple projects” (Hevner et al., 2004, p. 86). The testing was performed in two rounds, namely, short-term and long-term observation evaluation. The long-term observational evaluation took place three years after the original testing of the artifacts in companies and confirmed the effectiveness of the developed MC–IGs. Details of the developed MC–IGs are presented in the Results section.

Notably, two members of the research team participated in the original study that developed the artifact and conducted consultant interventions in two companies. Both of them are academic researchers with experience in consultant intervention knowledge transfer. The other two members of the present research team had no previous knowledge of the developed IGs, and their inputs were crucial for the critical view of the reasoning and control of the whole research process (including the research design). One of these other researchers had a variety of consultant experiences, while the other one has long-standing experience in global consulting firms, as well as major client organizations that deliver large-scale projects around the world. All four authors hold PhD and have acted or are still acting as university researchers. The team, therefore, englobes consultant expertise and academic research expertise in each member even though the members differ in their orientation toward consultancy and academic research.

In the Phase 2 (Figure 5), mitigation of NIH syndrome emerged as an unintended consequence of the IGs application (Holmström et al., 2009). Specifically, in the two case companies the NIH syndrome appearance has not been registered during the consultant intervention and the later application of the developed IPs. Without available theoretical framing, at the time of the original study, this finding has been labeled as “behavioral component” of the consultant intervention and concluded that “the developed MC implementation plans are effectively implemented by the company personnel, and it seems that the proposed MC–IGs are effective in reducing the resistance to change that is present to varying extents in all individuals and organizations [i.e. NIH syndrome was mitigated]” (Suzic and Forza, 2023). The finding was noted and reported, but it was not further elaborated since it went out of the scope of that study. Since it makes the basis of the present research we elaborate on this point later in the results section.

Starting from the recorded NIH-mitigating capacity of the developed IGs, the present study is bridging Phases 2 and 3 (Figure 5). This bridging is done through abductive reasoning (Mantere and Ketokivi, 2013). Specifically, starting from the deep understanding of the two consultant interventions and with the use of the primary data, we theorize the existence of two models for IP development (i.e. nonparticipative and participative models). In short, in participative IP development client takes part actively in the plan creation. Once the initial theory base is laid through abduction, the goal of the Phase 3 becomes to establish the theoretical relevance of the empirically experienced phenomenon, that is NIH syndrome mitigation. So, as the main part of the present research, Phase 3 represents the mid-range theory building, which takes the final form of NIH-mitigating IG development framework. Notably, the object of the present study is changed from IGs development (Phases 1 and 2 – Suzic and Forza, 2023) to establishing principles for developing NIH-mitigating IGs (Phase 3 – present study). To move in the direction of the theory building, we had to frame our empirical findings in a more general theory. The framing theory we use is the theory of the NIH attitude functions (Antons and Piller, 2015). Through deductive reasoning (Mantere and Ketokivi, 2013) we applied this general theory to derive five principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs as a part of NIH-mitigating IG development framework. Notably, each derived principle corresponds to one of NIH attitude functions from Antons and Piller (2015). Finally, with the developed framework defined and principles in place, we revisit the empirical data to identify the mechanisms that led to NIH mitigation in two consultant intervention cases and their impact on enacting the five theorized principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs.

In this section, we provide the results of the present research which has the final goal of proposing the NIH-mitigating IG development framework. However, as promised in the Method section, and to facilitate the reader’s understanding, we briefly present the previous phases of the DSR research conducted (i.e. Phases 1 and 2 – Figure 5). The importance of presenting the previous phases lies in the fact that the phenomenon recorded in the Phase 2 of the research (i.e. NIH-mitigation effect of the IGs) is the basis of the theory building done in the present research. Furthermore, in the final subsection, the consultant interventions in two companies (from Suzic and Forza, 2023) are revisited to identify the characteristics of the consultant interventions relevant for NIH-mitigation as well as the mechanisms that connect them to the principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs.

The case IGs were developed for implementing MC in SMEs (Suzic and Forza, 2023). To facilitate the reader, in Table 2 we provide essential details about the IGs development, their main characteristics and the outcomes of the consultant interventions done with those IGs in two companies. For more details on the developed IGs please refer to Suzic and Forza (2023).

Furthermore, we provide two main elements of the IGs. The first one is the MC maturity grid, which represents the core component of the IGs – Figure 6. The second component is the procedure for the use of the MC-IGs – Figure 7. These two IGs components, along with the information in Table 2, provide the reader with the essential data needed to follow the results obtained in the present research. However, for the purposes of limited space available, we do not go into further details on the case IGs.

In DSR, the exploratory part of the research seeks to develop an artifact aimed at solving a class of problems (van Aken, 2004). The specific artifact that has been considered in the exploratory phase of the present DSR was aimed to “support a holistic assessment of the MC maturity status of an SME and to support the development of MC implementation plans that are actually implemented” (Suzic and Forza, 2023).

However, the DSR recognizes that in parallel with the effects of the artifact that are expected, there are also effects that are originally unintended by the artifact developers (Holmström et al., 2009). In the consultant interventions conducted with MC–IGs, the unintended consequence (while welcome and coopted later) was the lack of NIH syndrome appearance in the consultant intervention. In other words, the consultant interventions in both companies were accepted very well, and IPs were developed and later implemented without NIH syndrome appearance.

At the time of the consultant interventions, the researchers were focused on artifact development. The positive effects found in the form of NIH mitigation were coopted in the artifact design and the procedure to conduct the consultant interventions (Figure 7). However, no further steps were taken in researching the phenomenon encountered.

The unintended NIH mitigation observed by Suzic and Forza (2023) is the point where the theory-building in the present research begins. Specifically, after the experience with two consultant interventions, we went on to theoretically frame the NIH-mitigation effect of IGs. By reflecting on what could have led to this mitigation of NIH syndrome we noticed that the MC IPs generated with the MC–IGs proposed by Suzic and Forza (2023) were by design generated with the participation of the company staff. Thus, the IP proposal was not generated before researchers arrived in the companies. The idea generation (Step 7 – Figure 7) considered each company’s as-is situation regarding the MC maturity status – assessed by applying the MC maturity grid (Figure 6). Having had this idea of a potentially important cause, we revisited the body of MC–IGs that have been analyzed in depth in previous research (Suzić et al., 2018a, 2018b) to understand if IPs are usually developed before or after the consultant enters the company. The analysis showed that all 20 IGs from the sample offered premade IPs ^[8].

At this point, by using abductive reasoning based on the two consultant interventions and the analysis of 20 available IGs, we theorize the existence of two types of IP development (Figure 8), namely:

1. nonparticipative IP development, and

2. participative IP development.

We base this categorization on the externality of IP creation. We argue that if an IP is developed a priori, without the client’s participation (i.e. nonparticipative IP development), there is a risk that the implementation of these plans will encounter significant NIH-based resistance, as in the case documented by Caldwell and Dyer (2020).

To increase the chances of successful consultant intervention, we theorize that the act of creating an IP should be “moved” inside the client company, thus, internalizing the knowledge creation process by merging external topic-specific knowledge with internal situation-specific knowledge (Figure 8). This suggestion follows Clagett’s (1967, p. 50) conclusion that “the problem is not, “how to overcome N. I. H.,” but how to prevent creating it.” Our reasoning is theoretically supported by Schein’s (1987) philosophy of the collaborative relationship between consultant and client (i.e. process consulting), which according to Wickham (2008, p. 20) is built upon the notion that “the only people who can, ultimately, help the business are the people who make it up” and that sees consultants as facilitators of the change.

Translated into the IGs context, we argue that the current predominant model for IP development (which we name nonparticipative) could be challenged and replaced with a participative model (Figure 8) in which an IP is developed with and approved by the client to enable consultants to mitigate NIH syndrome in the client company. In the participative model, IGs should provide common ground for the joint creation of an IP by the consultant and the client(s), rather than imposing a fixed solution written elsewhere. By refraining from asserting a priori solutions, the participative model should further stimulate collaboration and allow for flexibility in a posteriori IP development.

To transform IP development model into a generalizable theory, we needed to frame it into a more general theoretical framework. A suitable theory we identified was the theory of NIH attitude functions (Antons and Piller, 2015).

At this point of the research our empirical findings and theorized participative model for IP development (Figure 8) needed a framing in the more general NIH theory. This framing was done in the present phase of the research (Phase 3) where we propose a mid-range theory in the form of NIH-mitigating IG development framework.

After reviewing the NIH syndrome literature, we opted for Antons and Piller’s (2015) NIH attitude functions as the starting point for conceptualizing our theoretical framework. Attitudes are defined as relatively time-consistent individual evaluations of an object of thought, including physical artifacts, people, groups and ideas (Bohner and Dickel, 2011). These attitudes serve individuals to adapt to the environment and also serve attitude functions that are: ego-defensive, value-expressive, social-adjustive, knowledge and utilitarian (Ajzen, 2001; Antons and Piller, 2015; Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). The main reason for choosing NIH attitude functions for the basis of our framework is that this theory connects in a comprehensive way NIH syndrome with the attitude functions theory accepted broadly in psychology (Ajzen, 2001; Bohner and Dickel, 2011; Demski and McGlynn, 1999; Eagly and Chaiken, 1993).

Each of the attitude functions can be a source of NIH syndrome and can lead to irrational devaluation or even rejection of potentially valuable external knowledge. These functions are important for understanding the mechanism of the rejection of external knowledge by individuals/groups. Based on Antons and Piller (2015) we provide an overview, characterization, operationalization and triggered heuristic and related theories in Table 3.

Thus, NIH attitude functions represent a comprehensive general theory explaining attitudes toward external knowledge that can lead to NIH syndrome appearance in knowledge transfer. In addition, our initial assessments showed that the phenomenon we experienced in practice during consultant interventions is fully covered by five NIH attitude functions. Thus, our initial assumption was that through deductive reasoning NIH attitude functions could be adapted from a general knowledge transfer context to a specific NIH-mitigation IG development for consultant intervention knowledge transfer.

We proceed from the belief that these five attitude functions greatly influence the readiness of clients to accept the knowledge transferred through the use of IGs. How IGs are developed and later applied in industry influences the effectiveness of the knowledge transfer they are developed to support.

Based on the NIH attitude functions, we derived our core propositions – five principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs. We applied deductive reasoning (Mantere and Ketokivi, 2013) – moving from general (NIH attitude functions in knowledge transfer) to specific (development of NIH-mitigating IGs for consultant intervention). At this point, for the sake of clarity, we remind that in our abductive research journey, we started from an empirical observation (unintended consequences – i.e. NIH mitigation), where we inferred that an explanation could be found in NIH research. Consequently, to theoretically explain the phenomenon, we had to generate deductively (from theory and not from empirical evidence) these five principles, principles that later on will be contrasted with empirical evidence going back to the original empirical observation and reading it through new lenses. The goal was to transfer the essence of five NIH attitude functions (part of general theory) to the level of IGs development (specific context). This was done by developing one principle for each NIH attitude function – so five principles in total. For example, from ego-defensive function we derived the first principle – preserve the client’s ego. Thus, the analytical reasoning applied was done with the goal to provide the matter experts that develop IGs with clear principles which can guide them in developing IGs capable of mitigating NIH syndrome during the consultant intervention. The development of IGs in this way is meant to play a proactive role in preventing NIH syndrome from appearing during a consultant intervention. In the following paragraphs, we provide our five principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs. We recognize specific NIH attitude function to which each principle responds and the mechanisms through which a principle should help mitigate NIH by developing appropriate IGs:

These five principles compose our NIH-mitigating IG development framework (Table 4). Besides providing the five core principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs, the proposed framework also describes the principles, dives into operationalization of the five core principles and connects the five core principles with exemplifications of consultant supporting behavior that should help mitigate NIH syndrome during the consultant intervention.

After completing the theory-building part of the research, that is the NIH-mitigating IG development framework conceptualization (subsections 4.2 and 4.3), we made another step in the research. That is, we revisited two original consultant interventions published in Suzic and Forza (2023).

The consultant interventions (Suzic and Forza, 2023) were done in two companies from Italy. Both companies had a goal to transfer knowledge on MC concept during the consultant interventions, which were organized in group workshops. The first company (Metalmech Inc. ^[9]), is of medium size (100 employees), from the manufacturing sector, producing hydraulic power units, assembly lines and industrial high-pressure flexible hoses. The main product characteristics are product variety and configurability. The participants in consultant intervention had an engineering background – 3 mechanical engineers and 1 management engineer covering roles of:

• logistics and operations manager;

• sales/marketing manager (also covering responsibility for product management);

• design engineer for the family of hydraulic power units; and

• design engineer for the family of assembly lines.

The second company (Soft Automation Inc.⁸) is small (35 employees), from the service sector, providing software and services in fields of automation systems, control systems, monitoring systems, manufacturing execution systems, revamping of existing outdated production systems and systems maintenance services. The main product characteristics are customizability and a high level of adaptation to customer needs. Also in this case, the participants in consultant intervention had an engineering background – 2 electronics engineers, 1 mechanical engineer and 1 management engineer covering roles of:

• technical director;

• manager of the department for research and development;

• manager of the department for industrial automation; and

• manager of the department for the development of automation in the energy plants industry.

In both cases, consultant interventions were done by two academic researchers with deep knowledge of enablers/practices of MC.

The data available from these two consultant interventions is rich primary data consisting of audio recordings and transcripts of group workshops, audio recordings and transcripts of the interviews conducted as a part of the long-term observational evaluation, results of the consultant interventions with ideas and IPs generated, product data from both companies, web site analysis, analysis of the consultant interventions conducted immediately after their enactment and so on.

This rich primary data was used in two ways for the present research. It has been used first to detect unintended consequences of the Suzic and Forza (2023) study, which are the starting point of the present abductive part of the research. Second, it has been used at the end of the theory-building phase to revisit the consultant interventions in light of the proposed NIH-mitigating IG development framework. Specifically, the work was done to understand does newly developed framework explain the effects of NIH-mitigation that has been recorded in that research. Having access to the primary data of the two consultant interventions we conducted a mental exercise (Whetten, 1989) in the form of mapping. Specifically, we conducted the mapping exercise (Table 5) in three steps:

1. Identification of the consultant intervention features – we define consultant intervention features as characteristics of the consultant intervention that could potentially prevent NIH from arising. The goal of this step was to conduct an in-depth analysis of the primary data gathered during the consultant interventions (i.e. notes, interviews, recordings, analysis done) to identify the consultant intervention features that potentially had an impact on NIH-mitigation.

2. Mapping of the consultant intervention features to the principles (for developing NIH-mitigating IGs) – this step had the goal of understanding if a specific consultant intervention feature supports enacting one or more of the principles. Noticeably, in the final list of the features (Table 5) only the features that support at least one of the principles were kept.

3. Description of the mechanisms of support – finally in this step we described a specific mechanism through which the consultant intervention feature supports the specific principle resulting in NIH-mitigating effects.

Two researchers who developed the MC–IGs and conducted the consultant interventions (Suzic and Forza, 2023) identified specific features of consultant interventions relevant to NIH mitigation. In this process, we conducted a content analysis of workshop transcripts and analyzed workshop notes and discussions with clients after the workshops were conducted. As a result, we identified the consultant intervention features that potentially had the NIH-mitigating effects. Furthermore, we mapped the consultant intervention features to the principles for developing NIH-mitigating IGs (Table 5), describing the mechanism through which each specific feature supports a specific principle (Table 5) – where such support exists. Notably, the mechanisms through which consultant intervention features supported a specific principle were also informed by the conclusions derived from direct interactions with company staff and the reactions that were noted during the workshops.

Finally, the third and fourth researcher, who had no previous knowledge of the case IGs and did not participate in the consultant interventions, were asked to critically assess the analysis and the mapping done. Without previous knowledge of the case IGs and their application, the researchers acted as controls. In this way, the two researchers critically approached the terms used and the explanations provided for consultant intervention features and mechanisms, which led to an improved description of the mechanisms and also to the elimination of some consultant intervention features whose effect was not clear and strong enough, or some mechanisms that could not be defended. In addition, for every mechanism that was identified, we provided an example from two case companies where consultant interventions were conducted (italics in Table 5). Thus, after multiple iterations of the entire research team, the two researchers confirmed the final results of the mapping exercise provided in the Table 5.

In result, 11 consultant intervention features identified support enactment of four or five principles (Table 5). There are no significant differences in the number of the features that support specific principle enactment since the principles are supported by 9, 10 or 11 features. A summary of the mechanisms that support enactment of specific principle in the two consultant interventions is provided in the subsequent paragraphs:

The spark that initiated the present research came from the previous study (Suzic and Forza, 2023) in the form of unintended consequences (Figure 5) that were observed during the use of the developed IGs. Specifically, NIH syndrome was mitigated in two consultant interventions. Although inspired by the previous study, the real breakthrough came in the present study when we theorized two IP development models (nonparticipative and participative – Figure 8). Thus, we understood that to increase the chances of successful consultant intervention, the IP development should be moved inside the client company and involve the clients (i.e. participative IP development model). This new understanding enabled us to analyze the available IGs (Suzić et al., 2018a) and understand that the predominant model in IG development is nonparticipative IP development, and, thus, the IGs developed this way are prone to create NIH during the consultant intervention. From there on, we were able to identify NIH attitude functions (Antons and Piller, 2015) as the suitable general theory of knowledge transfer from which we could develop our NIH-mitigating IG development framework as a mid-range theory that supports the development of IGs that can help consultants mitigate NIH syndrome during the consultant intervention. Thus, the participative IP development model is the basis on which the newly developed framework rests.

With the present research, we aimed to unite the research streams on consultant intervention as a specific type of knowledge transfer (Cerruti et al., 2019; Jones et al., 2023; Kilmann and Mitroff, 1979; Pellegrinelli, 1997), NIH syndrome (Ajzen, 2001; Antons and Piller, 2015; Bohner and Wänke, 2002; Clagett, 1967) and IGs (Bokinge and Malmqvist, 2012; Coughlan and Coghlan, 2008; Ortiz et al., 1999; Rouhani et al., 2015; Suzić et al., 2018a, 2018b). From the theory building of the NIH-mitigating IG development framework and from revisiting the rich empirical data of two consultant interventions conducted, we derive key implications for theory and practice, as well as future research opportunities. We expect that the main findings of the present research will help consultants and researchers developing IGs by mitigating the risk that NIH syndrome will appear during the consultant intervention, enabling in this way a successful knowledge transfer.

In his pioneering work on NIH syndrome, Clagett (1967) wrote that “the problem is not how to overcome N.I.H., but how to prevent it.” Thus, at the very beginning of the research on NIH, Clagett practically suggested a proactive approach to NIH mitigation. Strangely, the relevant NIH literature (Antons and Piller, 2015; Kathoefer and Leker, 2012; Katz and Allen, 1982; Lichtenthaler and Ernst, 2006) remained focused on the reactive approach, that is NIH mitigation during the knowledge transfer (i.e. overcoming the NIH during the consultant intervention) – Figure 3. Thus, knowledge transfer literature dealing with NIH virtually neglects the IGs as tools for knowledge transfer that could help NIH mitigation, staying focused on reactive NIH mitigation (Figure 3).

As for the IGs stream, the notion of a participative IP development model – as a basis for a proactive approach to NIH mitigation – is present in the relevant literature (Salvador et al., 2009; Sousa and Voss, 2008; Suzić et al., 2018a; Suzic and Forza, 2023; Svensson and Barfod, 2002). Some rare research managed to connect the effects of IGs with NIH appearance (Caldwell and Dyer, 2020; Suzic and Forza, 2023), however, in an implicit way and not naming the NIH syndrome per se, but recognizing the effects that nonparticipative IP development model (Figure 8) can have on clients acceptance of these IPs. Notably, the participative IP development model has not been clearly articulated up to the present study.

We argue that one of the reasons for this unusual situation is the lack of research covering consultant intervention, NIH and IGs in ensemble (Figure 2). Specifically, the disconnectedness of the stream that deals with NIH and the one that develops IGs is symptomatic. As a result, IGs remain almost invisible as tools for knowledge transfer and especially for consultant intervention (Jones et al., 2023; Kilmann and Mitroff, 1979; Pellegrinelli, 1997, 2002; Ward et al., 2009). Thus, there was a need to connect these three research streams to enable a proactive approach to NIH mitigation.

The present research shifts the focus from a reactive approach to NIH mitigation (i.e. what to do during the consultant intervention) to a proactive approach to NIH mitigation (i.e. how to develop the consultant-used IGs in the right way). Specifically, the present research stressed the importance of client participation in creating an IP, arguing that the location of the IP’s creation is crucial in the emergence of NIH syndrome. Notably, if the IP is developed during the creation of IGs, outside of the client company and without participation from the client (e.g. best practices, see Sousa and Voss, 2008), it is highly probable that NIH syndrome will appear in the company. However, if the IP is developed within the company with the client’s participation (see Suzic and Forza, 2023), we argue that acceptance of the IP will be much more probable. In this way, the focus of the NIH mitigation shifts from the act of consultant–client knowledge transfer (as a current reactive focus of the NIH literature) to how the IGs are developed to mitigate NIH (proactive approach – Figure 8). Thus, by proposing the development of IGs that move the creation of an IP inside the client company (Figure 8), we follow Clagett’s suggestion (Clagett, 1967, p. 50) that NIH should be prevented (and not overcome).

Although IGs are developed as supporting tools for consultant interventions (Suzić et al., 2018a, 2018b), their role in NIH appearance during the consultant intervention is neglected by the researchers. The rich IG research stream defines what characteristics IGs should have (Coughlan and Coghlan, 2008; Ortiz et al., 1999; Rouhani et al., 2015), how effective IGs should look like and what properties they should have (Suzić et al., 2018a). We can also find the IG building blocks definitions in the relevant literature (Suzić et al., 2018a). Thus, the available IGs are predominantly focused on the contents and providing instructions on how a specific concept should be implemented.

Albeit, some IGs point out hindrance factors to look out for when conducting the consultant intervention (Hanafy and ElMaraghy, 2015; Ismail et al., 2007; Kudsk et al., 2013). But also these, with the exception of resistance to change (Kudsk et al., 2013) fail to address the NIH syndrome as a potential hindering factor for effective use of IGs. Thus, the effect of NIH syndrome is not recognized among the possible hindrance factors. In this way, the IGs are developed without considering what effect their characteristics (once developed) will have on the acceptance of the knowledge by clients during the consultant intervention. Some exceptions among the IG studies (Caldwell and Dyer, 2020; Suzic and Forza, 2023) implicitly mention NIH effect, but they do not frame their research in the general NIH theory.

Thus, the IG research stream does not recognize NIH syndrome as an obstacle to successful knowledge transfer during the consultant intervention, instead focusing on the operationalizing steps for the implementation of specific concepts. This means that experts developing IGs (i.e. researchers and/or consultants) until the present study did not have a theoretical framework that could guide them in developing NIH-mitigating IGs.

In fact, the main contribution of the present research is a new mid-range theory (Holmström et al., 2009) in the form of the proposed NIH-mitigating IG development framework. Starting from empirical findings of the previously conducted study (Suzic and Forza, 2023), we theorized that if the IGs are developed using a nonparticipative IP development model (Figure 8) where an a priori IP is developed without the client’s participation, the chance of NIH appearance will be high. Subsequently, in the theory-building phase, we framed the development of our framework into the Antons and Piller’s (2015) general theory on NIH syndrome (i.e. NIH attitude functions). Specifically, we argue that IGs should be developed according to the proposed framework of five principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs in order for the consultant’s intervention to be accepted by the client without the appearance of NIH syndrome. The framework proposes that IGs should be developed in a way that preserves the client’s ego, adheres to the client’s values, fulfills the client’s social needs, builds on the client’s knowledge and ensures positive outcomes for the client (Table 4). Neglecting the role of the IGs used for the consultant intervention can have a detrimental effect on the client’s acceptance of the transferred knowledge because the knowledge offered by the consultant – with the use of IGs – could be seen as external to the company and, thus, be rejected.

In the present study, we want to recognize the importance of the work done in the stream of knowledge transfer literature dealing with NIH for the results we obtained. Specifically, we want to emphasize the importance of Antons and Piller’s (2015) work done on the general theory of NIH attitude functions. This specific work enabled us to better understand the externality of consultants as participants in the consultant intervention. Specifically, it helped us to frame our empirical experience with consultant interventions and better understand the unenviable position of Type 7 and Type 8 knowledge transfer (Table 1) that is prone to NIH appearance in client companies. Furthermore, starting from this general theory of NIH attitude functions, we were able to deductively derive our mid-range theory in the form of NIH-mitigating IG development framework (Table 4). Finally, we were inspired by various calls for future work that Antons and Piller (2015) made in their pivotal work and tried to contribute to some of them.

Specifically, an important contribution of the present research is the operationalization of the NIH attitude functions framework (Antons and Piller, 2015) for a specific area of IG development. Thus, using deduction we moved from the general theory of NIH attitude functions to the mid-range theory in the form of NIH-mitigating IG development framework (Table 4). To the best of our knowledge, the present research is the first to systematically address the issue of inappropriate development of IGs, which can potentially lead to NIH syndrome and is a concern for consultants during knowledge transfer. Furthermore, the present research responds to a call for research from Antons and Piller (2015) in a number of ways:

• it brings a fresh perspective, as it examines the influence of IGs on the success of consultant interventions;

• it provides a framework with explicit countermeasures and mechanisms to mitigate NIH syndrome;

• it answers the call to introduce a group-level perspective as an addition to the dominant individual perspective of NIH analysis; and

• through a proposed NIH-mitigating IG development framework, it brings us closer to understanding how managerial decisions are made in companies.

Tracking the source of consultancy-induced NIH syndrome back to the development of the IGs – Another contribution of the present research is its emphasis on IGs as an essential part of consultant interventions for mitigating NIH syndrome (Figure 3). Except for some rare research (Caldwell and Dyer, 2020; Suzic and Forza, 2023), the relevant literature does not focus on IGs as a source of potential NIH syndrome during the consultant intervention. By focusing on IGs in consultant interventions, we are placing a spotlight on the dynamics between the IGs used and the consultant’s approach. Up to now, the available literature either provided IGs without taking into account how they should be applied (Suzić et al., 2018a, 2018b), or focused on the type of consultant intervention (Pozzebon and Pinsonneault, 2012) without considering the type of IGs used. The present research argues that the consultant approach alone is not sufficient to mitigate NIH syndrome if IGs are not developed to facilitate participative IP development.

Identification and description of the mechanism that lead to NIH mitigation based on the conducted consultant interventions – In the last part of our research (subsection 4.4) we revisited the two consultant interventions previously conducted (Suzic and Forza, 2023). Based on the primary empirical data (i.e. notes, interviews, recordings and analysis done), we identified consultant intervention features that could lead to NIH mitigation, mapped them through a mental exercise (Whetten, 1989) to the relevant principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs and finally identified and described specific mechanisms that support enacting of specific principles. In addition, we provided concrete examples from the two consultant interventions to support and further explain the reasoning behind the various reported mechanisms. Although we recognize that all IGs are different (e.g. context dependent, related to developers’ experience and competences), we believe that this detailed mapping exercise of the characteristics of IGs that were used in successful consultant–client knowledge transfer can help future IG developers frame their DSR artifact development endeavors with the result of successful knowledge transfers without NIH appearance.

One of the limitations of the present research is that we considered only participative and nonparticipative IP development models when we examined how the IGs used by consultants could be developed (Figure 8). However, it is more likely that there is a client nonparticipation/participation range in the creation of IPs. Nevertheless, we believe these two extreme cases were suitable for the analysis in the present research. This kind of range could be an object for future studies.

Another limitation is that the framework developed has not been tested in practice. In fact, the research stops on the Phase 3 of the DSR research proposed by Holmström et al. (2009) – mid-range theory building. Future analyses should include a wide range of IGs with which the conceptualized NIH-mitigating IG development framework should be tested. To do this, future studies could include a number of companies in which the ability of the developed IGs to mitigate the negative effects of NIH can be further tested. This can be achieved through action research or through interviews with consultants and clients of the consultant intervention after the consultant intervention has been performed in the company. Another approach to test the proposed NIH-mitigating IG development framework would be to conduct a multiple case study (Voss et al., 2002) in purposes of theory testing (van Aken, 2004; Voss et al., 2002). Furthermore, a comparison could be made between two IGs, one with participative and one with nonparticipative IP development models for consultant interventions, testing them in parallel in case companies.

In the present research, to mend this lack of developed framework testing, we opted for a mapping exercise (Whetten, 1989) where we analyzed features of two conducted consultant interventions and mapped them to principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs, identifying and describing the mechanisms that led to the enactment of specific principle and NIH mitigation and providing examples for these principles from two case companies. Built on this experience, future research could also include more mapping exercises that would replicate the same procedure proposed in the current paper to identify other features of the specific consultant interventions that support the enacting of principles for the development of NIH-mitigating IGs. This work could lead to further theoretical development and clarification of mechanisms through which the principles proposed are enacted.