Follow me or get out of my way! Leadership styles in the Irish construction industry

Traditionally, the construction manager has been renowned to have led with an autocratic leadership style (Perrenoud and Patterson, 2022), where the manager retains as much power and decision making as possible. However, in recent years, many construction companies have focused on promoting positive leadership within their organisational structures. In Ireland, companies who invested money into leadership during the ‘Celtic Tiger’ period, an impressive boom in the country’s economic history (O’Leary, 2011), found themselves at an advantage because agility, flexibility and innovation were needed to survive in the new environment (Halloran, 2019). Fashina et al. (2021) highlight that the construction industry is known for its complex and dynamic nature, and various challenges such as schedule delays and cost overruns can hinder project success. Projects without leadership can become slow and stagnate, and the project objectives tend to be forgotten (Liphadzi et al., 2015a). Thus, one of the most important factors in overcoming these issues and ensuring project success is strong and effective leadership (Zhao et al., 2021). Müller and Turner (2007) argue that every construction project is unique, where different methods of construction are required, and different styles of leadership may be appropriate. Jalil (2017) and Iqbal and Hussain (2022) support that the success of the project is determined by the manager’s leadership style. Leadership is viewed as a subclass of management, and both are important for executive performance (Liphadzi et al., 2017). Nannus and Bennis (2007) believe that the leader’s role is setting a purpose or vision of change, whereas management associates with fulfilling organisational goals and processes. Either way, both are necessary for success in an increasingly complex and volatile business environment (Kotter, 1990).

According to Löwstedt et al. (2021), leadership is a complex but well-researched phenomenon; however, there are few practical studies in project management situations (Tyssen et al., 2013). Ellahi et al. (2024) agree that even though there has been a plethora of research on identifying the skill set of a project manager for successful project management, there is a need to do more empirical research. Academic research within an Irish context is scant, and Murphy et al. (2023) found that a fundamental knowledge gap exists in relation to empirical evidence surrounding effective leadership in the Irish architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) sector. The Construction Industry Federation (CIF, 2023) in Ireland identify that strong and effective leadership is needed, and Barron (2023) agrees that effective leadership is more important than ever across all sectors in Ireland. Based on this premise, project and site managers must acknowledge and address the way they lead their teams on construction projects, as negative leadership can potentially result in project failure. Al Kazaz and Shibani (2016) note that leadership skills are a major factor that differentiates between effective leaders and managers, which Owusu-Manu (2021) believes positively impacts the overall performance and success of construction projects. The benefit of this study and its findings is to inform management of the various leadership styles that exist and how they can be utilised effectively to ensure project success. In an academic context, previous research has failed to acknowledge and identify what exactly are the main leadership styles being used by project and site managers on construction projects in Ireland. To address this, results based on the actuality of events that emerge when managing and constructing in intrinsically adverse environments such as construction projects require documentation. Consequently, the aim of this paper is to identify and analyse leadership styles used in the Irish construction industry and document which styles, if any, are the most successful to implement in practice on-site. This pilot study encompasses a qualitative research method, incorporating a literature review and seven semi-structured case study interviews, using thematic analysis to assess the resultant data. The scope of the research focuses on two large-scale construction projects in the south-west region of Ireland. Although the study is regional and country specific, the results are applicable in a wider context, given that Ireland adopts much of the project and site management practices and principles assumed not just in the UK but further afield.

Leadership studies in the Irish construction industry are uncommon; however, there have been studies undertaken in other parts of the world. Bresnen et al. (1986) concentrated on UK site managers and found they display a stronger task orientation than other leaders. Abdelhaleem and Seymour (1995) centred their research on Egypt, identifying that power was the most dominant leadership control factor. Liphadzi et al. (2015b) explored the relationship between different leadership styles and project success in the South African construction industry. For a project to succeed, they found that it requires project leaders to get the work done by team members efficiently and effectively, and a leader must have a clear vison and attract an efficient team. Toor and Ogunlana (2011) investigated a large construction project in Thailand and concluded that wrongful use of authority, poor communication and low experience are the main factors to poor leadership within organisations. Carroll (2024) supports that an individual promoted to project manager and assigned to technical projects rarely receive proper project management training and as a result may lack the social and leadership skills required for the position, often struggling and failing (Alves do Nascimento, 2022). Kalambayi et al. (2021) agree that the absence of leadership in the construction industry can be devastating, and without it, teams stall, flounder and miss project goals entirely.

Mustapha and Naoum (1998) argue that projects are becoming more complex, and project leaders are facing changes in the construction industry. Clients are now emphasising more on completion dates and quality workmanship. Moreover, the study observed the factors that influence the effectiveness of construction site managers and concluded that site managers who had third level degrees and were members of institutes are more likely to perform better. Hillebrandt (2000) supports that the construction industry has greater need for leadership than any other industry, since projects are large and technically complex and require several specialised skills. Project success is dependent on the leadership shown from the various project leaders involved in the project from start to finish (Gould and Joyce, 2009). Also, Munns and Bjeirmi (1996) agree that the success or failure of constructions projects is dependent on the leadership throughout the project. Due to the significant role of leadership in the success of construction projects, Zavari and Afshar (2023) argue that effective leadership is required to alleviate the distinct complexities, unknowns and uncertainties of construction projects.

Low and Chuan (2006) suggested that there are many factors that can influence the performance of project leaders on construction projects such as its complexity, its size, and its environment. According to Harvey and Ashworth (1993), there are four factors that can have impact on leadership styles within construction projects: (1) project characteristics, (2) contractual arrangements, (3) project lifecycle and (4) environmental factors. Contrary to Harvey and Ashworth (1993), Mustapha and Naoum (1998) did not find support that project characteristics such as complexity, building type and project duration have an impact on leadership. However, Culp and Smith (2014) argued that there are 12 key leaderships characteristics that lead a project to be a success. One of the characteristics that they emphasis on is honesty and trust within the organisation. How good project leaders demonstrate honesty is by going and doing what they preach. A good leader will not ask a team member to do something they would not be prepared to do themselves. Leaders who use a coaching style of leadership help team members to identify their strengths and weaknesses (Giritli and Oraz, 2004). Project leaders should motivate and inspire construction workers and lead by example. Furthermore, project leaders have the ultimate responsibility when it comes to delivering a project on time, within budget, to high quality and customer satisfaction (Liphadzi et al., 2015a).

More recently, studies have concentrated on emerging trends in the construction industry such as digital transformation and sustainability. In their research on identifying digital leadership approaches in the UK construction industry, Zulu and Khosrowshahi (2021) argue that the role of digital leadership is vital to drive digital transformation. Shahruddin and Husain (2024) agree that the construction industry is experiencing a substantial shift because of the rapid development and utilisation of digital technology. According to Manzoor et al. (2021) and Gardner (2022), the deployment of digital technologies such as building information modelling, cloud-based collaboration platforms, immersive technologies, and artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming the way architects, engineers and construction professionals work, communicate, create and form relationships. Hui et al. (2024) support that the recent emergence of AI in the construction sector provides new opportunities to foster team innovation and strengthen the role of leadership. Considering sustainability, Tabassi et al. (2016b) believe that project managers play a critical role in transforming and influencing project team members to achieve sustainable performance (Afzal, and Tumpa, 2024). Das et al. (2023) claim that sustainable leadership comprises sustainable management, sustainable projects and sustainable activity, and there is a need for sustainable leadership in the construction sector (Waqar et al., 2024). Piwowar-Sulej and Iqbal (2023) argue that contemporary project managers need to adopt a leadership style that can strike a balance among the three pillars of sustainable development, namely environmental, social, and economic goals. However, more research needs to address the knowledge gap about integrating and executing sustainable leadership principles successfully (Banmairuroy et al., 2022; Hashim et al., 2022).

Researchers have broken leadership into many styles, including autocratic, democratic, transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire (Jung et al., 2014; Zaman, 2020; Zulch, 2014). In addition to these styles, the Action-Centred Leadership Model developed by Adair (1973) provides a framework for understanding leadership effectiveness by balancing the needs of the task, the team and the individual. Jamali and Jamali (2018) and Ackah (2019) acknowledge that John Adair is widely regarded as the world’s foremost authority on leadership, and his work has paved the way for the development and understanding of these well-known leadership styles. Autocratic leadership is a one-dimensional style where leaders tell others what to do and expect them to do so, which is seen as an ineffective style of leadership (Liphadzi et al., 2015b). However, Djebarni (1996) argues that construction leaders are more successful in stressful situations when they demonstrated autocratic behaviours, and Loeung (2024) found that autocratic leaders had the positively influenced employee performance significantly in construction. Democratic leaders focus on building working relationships with co-workers (Perrenoud and Patterson, 2022) and make their final decisions only after coming to an agreement with the people they are leading. The Full Range Leadership Theory developed by Bass and Avolio (1991) categorise leader behaviours into groupings that represent three key leadership styles: transformational, transactional and laissez-faire. Transformational leadership is a motivational process where leaders put the workers first and involve them and their beliefs. According to Liphadzi et al. (2015a), working with a transformational leader can be an inspiring experience. Giritli and Oraz (2004) suggest that leaders use this style to build trust within the organisation. Transformational leaders exhibit a positive attitude to create a vison and determine a goal by interacting with their followers (Asal and Koksal, 2018). Transactional leadership is an extrinsic-based motivation where leaders reward their employees for job performance (Liphadzi et al., 2015a). Furthermore, Bass et al. (1996) argue that transactional leadership is an exchange of rewards for employee for services. Laissez-faire leadership is where leaders delegate the responsibility to team members and let them work off their own innovation. Bass (1997) notes that these leaders avoid accepting their responsibilities, are absent when needed, fail to follow up requests for assistance, and resist expressing their views on important issues.

Veliu et al. (2017) contest that that leadership is not a one-size-fits-all concept, and styles vary significantly among the successful leader (Ismail and Fathi, 2018). Naoum (2001) agrees that leaders sometimes may have to switch from one style of leadership to another or combine both styles together to get a task done. Mwesigwa et al. (2020) believe that leadership styles that can be adapted to suit the needs of subordinates will increase employee commitment. However, Oyewobi (2024) argues that in the construction industry, the issue of leadership style is a function of the business environment, and it is different from other industries, and it is necessary to grasp the unique features of the industry. McDermott and Flood (2010) explored leadership in Ireland and undertook interviews with various leaders from public, private and voluntary sectors, but not in construction. One interviewee said that effective leadership is all about communication and having shared goal and values. Another stated that you must become a leader and the best way of doing that is working your way to the top in the organisation. McLysaght (2011) reported that Irish managers are among the most easy-going in Europe, creating a positive working environment; however, this study was across general management disciplines and did not include construction alone. Fletcher et al. (2013) believe that senior management must possess both hard and soft skills to be effective in their role, and project management education should instil a skill set that can be applied anywhere, conveyed through soft management skills and prepare students to be life-long learners (McArdle et al., 2012). Most recently in Ireland, Murphy et al. (2023) found that there is a reluctance on the part of AEC researchers to engage with the social interactive nature of leadership involving both leader and team follower, and for leadership development initiatives to be significant, they must be based on empirical evidence derived from an Irish context. Thus, current research lacks proper investigation into leadership styles and project success in the Irish construction industry; therefore, research in this area is imperative.

The literature has revealed several key research gaps in the current understanding of leadership in the Irish construction industry. There is limited empirical evidence on effective leadership practices specific to the AEC sector, and a lack of comprehensive studies identifying the primary leadership styles employed by project and site managers on Irish construction projects. Furthermore, there is insufficient research on the relationship between leadership styles and project success. From an industry standpoint, the CIF, Ireland’s construction industry representative body, even stresses that strong and effective leadership is needed. Consequently, to address these gaps, this study aims to achieve the following objectives:

• identify the primary leadership styles used in the Irish construction industry;

• explore the adaptability of leadership styles in different project contexts;

• highlight the importance of trust in construction leadership;

• examine the relationship between leadership and project success.

The research aims to address the shortcomings by providing evidence through qualitative case studies, focusing on two large-scale construction projects in the south-west region of Ireland. The outcomes of this study will inform management about effective leadership styles in construction projects and their impact on project success. This knowledge is crucial for improving leadership practices in the Irish construction industry and potentially in the wider construction sector.

This preliminary investigation concentrates on leadership styles for project success in the Irish construction industry and aims to contribute to both industry and academia. Figure 1 illustrates the research steps and methodology undertaken for this study.

Considering the theoretical position and epistemological reasoning this paper and subsequent research are founded on, a critical realism approach is used. Archer et al. (2016) state that critical realism is a stance concerned with providing a philosophically informed account of science and social science, which in turn can inform an empirical investigation. Brooks et al. (2016) argue that critical realism holds that our view of the world is conditioned by experiences and assumptions, and Stutchbury (2022) supports that critical realism looks for explanations through a focus on what people can achieve in the social context or structures in which they are operating. Furthermore, Thorpe (2019) believes that critical realism provides a fuller understanding with a greater internal consistency than other methodologies including positivism and interpretivism. In the context of understanding complex interactions within leadership and management in construction, critical realism enables people’s accounts to be considered as valid research data to identify the structures around us (Egbo, 2005). A subjectivist approach is applied to the ontology, as the nature of this study primarily deals with the opinions of human participants. Rees et al. (2020) identify that qualitative research depends on subjectivity, and a subjective perspective is fundamentally intertwined with qualitative research processes (Olmos-Vega et al., 2023). An inductive approach is selected as this entails the generation of themes from the data (Proudfoot, 2023), and it is a systematic procedure for analysing qualitative data where the analysis is guided by specific objectives (Thomas, 2003). Azungah (2018) states that inductive reasoning involves working exclusively from participant experiences that drive the analysis entirely; however, Woo et al. (2017) argue that findings from an inductive study might not always be unique, as it is possible that similar data patterns have been reported in the literature. Nonetheless, inductive reasoning allows for data-driven descriptions of experiences by those who experience them (Brownstone et al., 2021), in this case construction project management professionals. Furthermore, the inductive approach is particularly concerned with the context in which events occur, favouring small sample studies to explore phenomena (Blaikie, 2010; Saunders et al., 2015). As this study includes seven participants, the inductive approach is perfectly suited to derive concepts and themes that emerge from the raw data (Thomas, 2006).

On completion of a literature review, the research method consists of seven individual semi-structured interviews with a variety of construction project and site management professionals, based on two large construction projects situated in the south of Ireland. According to Davies et al. (2015), interviews are widely used in construction management research as an informed source of data about specific cases and the wider network. The selection of the interviewees was based on a combination of both convenience and criterion sampling strategies. Convenience sampling means that the researchers utilise a sample that is readily available and they have access to (Golzar et al., 2022), and criterion sampling identifies and selects cases that meet some predetermined criterion of importance (Palinkas et al., 2015). Criterion sampling falls under the broader purposive sampling technique, which Tongco (2007) states is the deliberate choice of an informant due to the qualities they possess. Creswell (2013) recommends purposive sampling as it determines information-rich participants whose understanding is important for the study. In this instance, convenience sampling was employed first as it exhausted the researchers personal contacts and connections in the construction industry. This was followed by criterion sampling where the main criteria were the capability and availability of the participant, their managerial or leadership role and experience within the organisation, and the location of their current construction project, which had to be within Ireland. The unit of study applicable to the research is the individual, as they are the most straightforward unit of study (Hodson and Sullivan, 2008). Semi-structured interviews are utilised in this research as this method allows questions to lead from one to another, enabling the interviewee to provide as much information as possible (Curran et al., 2018).

Taking ethical requirements into consideration, all seven interviewees were informed of the background of the study and what their responses were used for. They were issued with an information sheet before the interviews started, along with a consent form that noted their agreement to the study. All the identities of the interviewees remained anonymous, and confidential personal information such as names and addresses were not disclosed. Cohen et al. (2011) believe that participants have the right to privacy and confidentiality in relation to the information they are providing. All the interviewees were male, and their age range was between 22 and 51. No females were interviewed as the researchers had limited access to women in managerial roles, or any that fell under the criteria in the previously discussed sampling strategies. Research supports that construction is a male-dominated industry (Norberg and Johansson, 2021), as Meekel et al. (2024) identify that a lack of female role models and mentors is one of the main reasons for the shortage of women construction workers in Ireland. In addition, the Central Statistics Office (CSO) in Ireland reveals that the construction sector had the lowest level of female representation in senior executive roles in 2023 at 13.4% (CSO, 2023). Thus, future research in this area could be utilised to address this gap. Table 1 identifies background information about each interviewee.

All seven interviews were recorded in handwritten note format, with an average interview duration of 30 minutes, taking place on location, in the respective site office of each project. Flick (2018) reiterates that the purpose of the interview is to allow the collection of all the data from the selected group, which is then analysed and findings developed. For qualitative research, Johnson et al. (2020) support that the interviews must be conducted in a way that is credible, transparent and non-biased, drawing purely on the knowledge and experience of the interviewee. The interviews commenced by gaining general background information from each participant, followed by a series of questions about leadership in the construction industry and their own styles of leadership and experiences. The questions were mainly open-ended, as Karatsareas (2022) believes that these can prompt the interviewees to develop their thoughts and ideas in depth and express their views on the subject matter from their own personal perspectives. Although not an exhaustive list, some of the questions included: ‘From a construction project viewpoint, what does the term “leader” mean to you?’, ‘What are the characteristics of effective leaders in a construction project context?’, ‘What is the role of a leader during both good and bad times during a project?’, ‘How would you describe your own leadership style?’, ‘How do you motivate yourself and your team on-site?’, ‘How do you recognise and reward the achievements of others?’

Findings from the seven interviews were combined and qualitatively assessed and summarised using thematic analysis. Fletcher (2017) supports the use of thematic data analysis as it is consistent with critical realism ontology and epistemology, and it is used to deduce key themes. Braun and Clarke (2006) agree that thematic analysis involves identifying patterns to make meaning and gain insight into a contemporary phenomenon. The interview transcripts were manually coded by establishing emerging themes from the transcripts, including key words and topics for discussion. Hacking et al. (2023) note that researchers often conduct coding analysis by manually analysing each transcript stemming from an interview, to identify text fragments that are relevant to the objective at hand. Despite the availability of data management software, de Jesus et al. (2024) argue that manual coding remains prevalent as an immediate coding solution and, although time-intensive, it is still a vital component of qualitative research. To minimise bias during the data analysis, reflexivity is considered. Jowsey et al. (2021) state that reflexivity is a process whereby researchers proactively reflect on their biases and positionality. Furthermore, Mackieson et al. (2019) corroborate that thematic analysis contributes to the conduct of strong qualitative research by providing a comprehensive, yet flexible, structure that incorporates reflexivity, thereby reducing potential bias; increasing rigor, transparency and replicability; and strengthening the processes through which researchers gain theoretical insights. As discussed by Peel (2020), the researchers in this study were self-aware and monitored how their experiences shaped their research design and interpretations. A summary of the key findings is illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2 acts as a visual representation of the thematic analysis results, with four central themes emerging in correlation with the literature: Creating a Vision (McDermott and Flood, 2010); Characteristics of Effective Leaders (Culp and Smith, 2014); Motivating the Workforce (Liphadzi et al., 2015a); and Leadership as a Success Factor (Gould and Joyce, 2009). The literature review played a crucial role in shaping the approach to the data analysis; however, the researchers remained open to emerging themes from the data itself. For inductive analysis, Jowsey et al. (2021) support that this involves approaching the data with an open mind, inductively looking for patterns and themes. Furthermore, Dawadi (2020) identifies that when developing themes, concepts previously identified in the literature review can be brought in. Each row, or factor, in Table 2 represents a subtheme within the four main themes, while columns indicate the participants who mentioned each factor. Popenoe et al. (2021) discuss a similar approach where patterns and prevalence of themes across the different participants and sites can be identified. It is worth noting that the findings are from seven interviews and are specific to this research; thus, they are not a generalised view. Nevertheless, this pilot study provides a foundation to advance and expand into more detailed research and supports continuous examination into the leadership styles for project success in the Irish construction industry.

The most prominent theme that emerged from the interviews was the characteristics of effective leaders. Five of the seven participants emphasised that creating trust and loyalty within the workforce was vital. Culp and Smith (2014) support that demonstrating loyalty and trust is practising what you preach, and a good leader will not ask a team member to do something they would not do themselves; thus, it is important to create honesty and trust within the organisation. Three of the interviewees agreed that they do not expect others to do ‘their dirty work’. Khalfan et al. (2007) support that trust is built up over a period and is a relationship built between people; it can be easily broken and often hard to fix. Moreover, Giritli and Oraz (2004) believe that transformational leaders use this style to build trust within the organisation. The Site Engineer on Site A stated, ‘If you show loyalty and respect to the lads on-site, in most cases they will show it back, it is a good way to win each other’s trust’. Similarly, the Site Manager on Site A said, ‘I would like to think I am firm but fair, it comes down to basic manners really, if I show respect and loyalty, I expect to get respect and loyalty’. These sentiments echo the findings of Khan et al. (2021), who claim that trust strengthens the leader–member relationship and stimulates the loyalty of employees towards their leaders.

All seven interviewees stated that effective communication is an essential characteristic of project leaders. McDermott and Flood (2010) corroborate that effective leadership is all about communication. The Project Manager from Site A believed that ‘Leaders must be able to converse with everyone in the industry, whether that is the design team in the office or the labourer out on-site’. The Site Manager from Site B agreed, ‘Soft skills are crucial when working in this industry, but I feel that it is something that is only learnt on the job and not learnt in university’. Project management is above all about managing people (CIOB, 2010), and the importance of soft management skills is stressed by Puckett (2011), who identifies those new graduates coming into the construction industry regularly struggle because they are only equipped with technical skills. The Site Engineer on Site B, who only graduated 2 years ago, added, ‘I remember some of the fellas in class were very book smart but not street smart, a busy construction site would be difficult for them, delegating and leading, mixing with different personalities all day, you have to be cut out for this type of work’. Atalah (2014) concurs that construction professionals not only require a wealth of knowledge, various sets of skills and previous project experience but, ideally, also acquire certain personality traits. Also, five of the participants expressed that effective project leaders need to be charismatic, correlating with the current Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) Guide (2017), which states that charismatic leaders can inspire team members and are self-confident. The Site Manager on Site B summarised being an effective leader very simply, ‘You either have it… or you don’t’, strengthening the view of Banks et al. (2017) who believe that charisma is an unknown quality or miraculous ability.

All seven interviewees discussed the importance of creating a vison and getting ‘buy-in from the team’. In interviews with Company Directors in the business sector, McDermott and Flood (2010) found that effective leaders create a vision and can get team members to buy into it. Takim (2009) supports that an important aspect of project management is to obtain buy-in and support for the project from all stakeholders, regardless of their claim or influence. The Company Director on Site B further supported that a good leader would develop his team and encourage them to learn and develop, and leadership starts from the ‘top down’. The Project Manager on Site B stated, ‘It is important to act both as a leader to those you work with but also find the right company where you are working for and looking up to leaders as well’. Halloran (2019) identified that companies that had invested in leadership during the boom were able to stay afloat during the crash referring to the Irish economic recession of 2008/2009. The Company Director spoke in detail about the importance of culture within the company, stating ‘You must get the culture right, my management team and I continuously strive to set a good example, we want this to be a place where people want to work, where they are well looked after and they can have a long, successful career, to me that is effective leadership’. Ortega-Parra and Ángel Sastre-Castillo (2013) state that corporate culture has an important role in building employer brand, which is reinforced by employees who join a company because they are attracted by it, helping to increase productivity.

Three of the interviewees highlighted that project leaders must listen to the personnel on-site when making decisions, emphasising that team members must not be afraid of making mistakes, but also learning from their mistakes. Culp and Smith (2014) agree that project leaders are not afraid of taking risks and will keeping encouraging team members at all costs. Considering future trends and developments in the industry, the two Project Managers on Site A touched on the topics of digitalisation and sustainability. One noted, ‘Construction is changing at such a fast pace, the advancements in technology in the past five years alone is unbelievable, it is very hard to keep on top of it all sometimes… as Project Manager’s, we are expected to lead but it can be difficult when you don’t have as much of a grasp of it as you should have’. Rehan et al. (2024) echo that construction organisations need to identify key project success factors for leadership practices and communication that match the complexity and constant change and manage the application of digital technologies. The other Project Manager highlighted how sustainability is very much part of the norm in their job roles, stating ‘A lot of our projects are BREEAM or LEED standard, so sustainability is very much client-driven, but we do take stock of other areas like the environment, reducing waste, social value in the local community… it is important to do our bit going forward’. Tabassi et al. (2016a) concur that the leadership style and the way the project is managed can result in improved productivity and transform the project towards sustainability.

Motivating the workforce was another prominent theme that emerged from the interviews. Five out of the seven participants suggested from time to time they would use rewards schemes as a way of motiving workers. The Project Manager on Site A remarked, ‘Not necessarily a financial reward, but when milestones were reached on site all workers were treated to drinks after work or a breakfast as way of showing appreciation for the work done’. Liphadzi et al. (2015b) argue that this compliments a transactional style of leadership, where project leaders reward their employees for job performance. Offering rewards, either monetary or non-monetary, is an important part of improving overall safety on construction sites (Zulkefli et al., 2014); thus, it can be utilised in other areas on-site too. The Project Manager on Site B stated that keeping the site staff’s personal lives to the forefront is important when motivating team members, ‘You have to be careful when asking people to work weekends, then allowing them to take time in lieu at other points’. He added, ‘Showing empathy and allowing flexibility at times also helps, for example, if someone has a medical appointment or if they have to collect a sick child from school… let them leave an hour earlier and don’t make a big deal out of it, they will appreciate the favour and you letting them do that’. Natalie et al. (2024) believe that empathy is a necessary addition to the project managers toolkit. Furthermore, the Project Manager believed that people who enjoy going to work are going to be more motivated and willing to do more for the overall team. This is contrary to the work of Chan and Cooper (2007), who found that sometimes leaders are motivated strongly by a passion of throwing workers ‘under the bus’. However, three interviewees believe if you are motivated, if you are driven and if you set realistic goals, then you can keep workers motivated this way. Moreover, six of the interviewees suggested that praise and thanks for jobs done well goes along way when motivating workers.

An interesting motivational technique discussed by the Project Manager on Site A was ‘Management by Walking Around (MWBA)’, stating, ‘I find this is a very good way of communicating with the workers on the ground, particularly the tradesmen and subcontractors… it is easier to understand their issues when you are actually walking around the site with them, rather than sitting in a meeting room and discussing it over coffee… I like that direct face-to-face approach, and don’t like hiding behind emails’. According to Udeze and Opara (2022), MWBA is a management style where managers regularly walk around the workplace and communicate with the workers. Tucker and Singer (2015) argue that workers performance is enhanced when a manager is present on the frontline, as it sends a visible signal that the organisation is serious about resolving problems and increases employees’ beliefs that leadership values improvement. Furthermore, Curran et al. (2018) argue that face-to-face meetings engagement is viewed as the best way to communicate with construction project stakeholders.

All seven interviewees held similar views on leadership being a success factor to construction projects. Munns and Bjeirmi (1996) concur that the success or failure of constructions projects is dependent on the leadership throughout the project. Two interviewees believed that projects would fail without good leadership, and the golden triangle of cost, quality and time will be affected. The Project Manager on Site A claimed, ‘If there isn’t good leadership then the job will suffer quality wise, which will in turn affect the budget and ultimately, the project won’t finish on time’. The Project Manager on Site B opined that ‘If you want to get the most out of your workers you need to be seen as a leader yourself… this is key to getting them doing what you are going to need them to do to get the job done’. The Senior Engineer on Site B believes leadership is vital for construction and with effective leadership it will improve team morale, thus, improving team performance. The Company Director stated strongly that leadership is extremely important to the success of any project in construction, ‘Someone needs to be able to programme and deliver a successful project and that starts with the leader of the project team, it starts at the top and feeds down the chain’. Overall, leadership is key to the success or failure of a project (Al Kazaz and Shibani, 2016), and managers leadership competencies have been identified as a key driver of company’s success, especially in dynamic environmental conditions (Podgórska and Pichlak, 2019).

Following analysis and discussion of the seven interviews, evidence suggests that there are three main leadership styles being used in the Irish construction industry: transformational, transactional and laissez-faire. All the participants demonstrated in their discussions and anecdotes that they are using all three styles of leadership depending on the task on hand or situation. Interestingly, only three of the seven interviewees had any knowledge of the different leadership styles, namely the two Project Managers and Company Director. The Project Manager on Site A stated, ‘I did an MSc in Project Management a few years ago and part of a module covered leadership styles, it did make me more aware going out into industry as to what sort of leader I was going to be’. The Company Director on Site B added, ‘We run CPD training days and workshops a few times a year, and one of them is on leadership and management, so they are great for improving their knowledge’. However, the recently graduated Site Engineer stated that there was very little emphasis on leadership in college, ‘I vaguely remember one of the lecturers talking about leadership, but there was no standalone module on the subject, knowing what I know now, that would have been beneficial to learn back in college’. Three of the interviewees showed use of a laissez-faire style of leadership where they give the task to the workers and let them work on their own innovation. This can be seen as a poor style of leadership and can lead to low productivity. Nonetheless, if used in the right situation, this can be beneficial. Four of the interviewees demonstrated a transformational style of leadership using a motivational process where they put the workers and their views first. Transformational and laissez-faire are the two common styles being used. However, dependent on the task in hand these project leaders use a transactional style of leadership where they reward the workers for doing a task for them by reward schemes, time off in lieu of working a late evening or even treating them to breakfast. This compliments the work of Naoum (2001) who claim that leaders sometimes may have to switch from one style of leadership to another or combine to get the task done. Aarons (2006) supports that these styles are not mutually exclusive, and some combinations may enhance effective leadership. Furthermore, due to the impromptu, intuitive nature of project managers on-site when interacting with stakeholders (Curran and Spillane, 2020), the management team haphazardly cope with unpredictable events on an ad hoc basis (Tengblad, 2012), such as changing between leadership styles.

Essentially, this study focuses on leadership styles used in the Irish construction industry and whether leadership is viewed as a success factor on construction projects. Large construction projects are inherently complex in nature, requiring effective leadership among all project leaders, not just project managers. The research underscores that leadership is a key determinant of successful construction projects, and it is paramount that project leaders can communicate effectively with all stakeholders. The study revealed that three primary leadership styles are utilised in the Irish construction industry: transformational, transactional and laissez-faire. However, it is evident that all the participants adapt their leadership style and use all three, dependent on the task at hand, demonstrating a flexible approach that is essential for navigating the complexities of construction projects. Being adaptable challenges the notion of a single best leadership style and emphasises the importance of versatility in leadership. A significant theme that emerged from the study is the critical role of trust and honesty within projects. It is human nature that people prefer working for those they trust and are more willing to go above and beyond for leaders they can rely on. The important of soft skills cannot be underestimated, and they are necessary to complement the hard skills and technical expertise. The findings of this research provide originality and are significant in several ways, firstly by incorporating context-specific insights. This is one of the first studies to examine leadership styles specifically from an Irish construction industry perspective, thus providing locally relevant data for practitioners and researchers. The research revealed that successful leaders can be adaptable and can employ a mix of leadership styles when necessary, highlighting the importance of versatility in guiding teams through a constantly changing and dynamic built environment. The study also identified disparity in leadership education among construction professionals. While three participants (the two Project Managers and Company Director) had some form of formal leadership training, others had little to no theoretical knowledge on leadership styles and were using common leadership approaches unknowingly and in an ad hoc manner.

The research also identifies a range of practical implications for the industry, mainly centred around education and training. Construction companies should invest in training programmes, workshops and other continuous professional development that focus on developing leadership skills and creating awareness on this important area. Recognising leadership as a critical success factor will help organisations to prioritise leadership development to improve project outcomes. Also, universities and other educational institutions should consider incorporating leadership specific modules into their construction and built environment programmes, so graduates going out into industry have some knowledge and understanding of leadership curriculum. Moreover, the research encourages a more formalised and strategic approach to delivering leadership on-site, which can contribute to ensuring project success on construction sites in Ireland. This pilot study provides a foundation for further studies focusing on leadership within the Irish construction industry, and while it offers some valuable insights, its limitations should also be acknowledged. With seven interviews across two construction projects, future research should include a larger, more diverse sample to enhance its validity and reliability. Only males were interviewed as the researchers had limited access to females in management roles, and a lack of quantitative data hindered the statistical generalisability of the findings. Thus, to address these limitations and further advance understanding in this area, future research should conduct larger-scale studies encompassing mixed methods to validate and expand on these findings, including more qualitative interviews and a questionnaire survey to introduce a quantitative aspect to the research. Female participation should be a priority to introduce more diversity and create a gender balance across the findings. Furthermore, data analysis should be undertaken using software packages instead of being done manually, to add rigour to the results. The relationship between specific leadership styles and how they evolve throughout a project’s lifecycle should be investigated, along with an exploration of how cultural factors within the Irish construction industry influence leadership effectiveness. Nevertheless, this study successfully addressed its main objectives by identifying the primary leadership styles used in the Irish construction industry, exploring the adaptability of leadership styles in different project contexts, highlighting the importance of trust in construction leadership and examining the relationship between leadership and project success.

To conclude, this pilot study provides a foundation for understanding leadership in the Irish construction industry, highlighting the importance of adaptive leadership and trust-building. While three main leadership styles are utilised, there is no one-size-fits-all approach due to the impromptu and spontaneous nature of the construction industry. All participants in the study shared the view that leadership was seen as a success factor in construction projects, reinforcing the importance of effective leadership in achieving project goals. The common denominator in all construction projects is people and getting them on your side while being perceived as a leader is paramount to project success. By fostering a more formalised and strategic approach to leadership on-site, practitioners can significantly enhance project success. This research encourages further exploration into effective leadership practices within the construction sector, ultimately contributing to improved outcomes and performance across projects in Ireland. Overall, the key contribution of this research illustrates that there are three main leadership styles being utilised in the Irish construction industry, transformational, transactional and laissez-faire. It provides a foundation for future studies to delve deeper into the nuances of leadership within this specific context, potentially leading to more effective leadership strategies and improved project outcomes in the Irish construction industry.