This book is a fascinating cultural history showing the transformation of how society viewed and used soap throughout history, and the large‐scale societal changes brought on not only by modernization, but also the newly emerging advertising industry. It is a particularly useful study of the power of branding and product management. Soap, once considered unnecessary, and then a luxury, moved from an unbranded commodity product sold in bulk to the branded specialty bars we see used by everyone today.
In chapter 1, Sivulka discusses “a culture of cleanliness.” Well into the late nineteenth century, washing with soap was a privilege of the well‐to‐do, and a bath was something to be avoided. In 1919, a Lever Brothers’ advertisement for Lifebuoy soap inspired a culture of cleanliness founded on new technologies, new economic forms, and new consumer rituals. The advertisement informed people that soap was a required part of the First World War soldier’s equipment, and that army men bathed once a day because a clean soldier is more courageous, never discouraged, and “brimming with energy.” The author opens her book by explaining how soap is an artifact of culture, and that no other standardized, packaged good provides a more useful case in point for the study of major sociocultural change than soap. She reviews soap as part of cultural myths and icons, stereotypes, heroes, and rituals.
In the second chapter, the history of soap and soap making is explored to show that humans have not always valued soap or even bathing. Although soap was made over 2,000 years ago, the process was difficult and the results unpredictable, so soap was a rarity. Ancient religious practices did emphasize cleanliness and purity, and these traditional rituals may be the foundation of modern hygienic practices. Still, bathing was viewed as a religious or social duty (dips in the Ganges river or sweat baths of the Native Americans), not as a hygienic one – soap was not a big part of ritual bathing. In fact, for over a century in Europe, bathing was discouraged (communal bathing only served to spread myriad diseases). By the eighteenth century, however, washing rituals and soap had become part of genteel society in both Europe and America. Reverend John Wesley preached that “Cleanliness is, indeed, next to Godliness” and thus heightened the attention to cleanliness as part of gentility, health, and religion. In the nineteenth century, sanitation also began to be recognized by the medical profession as an important component of successful medical treatment. Personal hygiene became the realm of women, and cleanliness was seen as a foundation for health and attractive appearance. Soap use became widely accepted during and after the American Civil War, but bathing and other toiletry rituals were still practiced infrequently because the bathroom had not yet moved into the house.
This chapter also explores a history of the commercial soap trade, with the first commercial soap makers being the Colgate Company, Procter & Gamble, and the Babbitt Company. The earliest uses of branding are explored. Because soap had always been viewed as a generic item made at home or purchased in bulk at the general store, it was important for these companies to establish differentiation. Because many consumers could not read, a pictorial image was used to identify the soap products. Procter & Gamble developed its picture of the moon and stars and fashioned a metal brand so the image could be burned into the wooden packing crates. Babbitt started the earliest use of a premium, where 25 wrappers from Babbitt’s soap bars could be redeemed for one of the “beautiful panel pictures in full color.” Colgate began advertising, and all three companies explored the expansion of distribution via train rather than peddler word‐of‐mouth.
Sivulka discusses the rise of the mass market circa 1875 to 1900 in chapter 3. This chapter describes the new culture of consumption in which the national soap trade marketers as well as plumbers and fixture makers idealized cleanliness, because the outhouse moved indoors. The author describes revolutions in mass production, packaging, advertising, and sales promotions, all illustrated with historical soap examples. Magazines were used as an advertising vehicle for the first time, as the masses became literate enough to read.
In chapter 4, Sivulka looks at the evolution of soap, sex, and science spanning 1900 to 1920. The modernization and acceptance of the indoor bathroom is explored in the first part of this chapter. Then the author investigates an evolution in the advertising of soap. For the first time, soap manufacturers had to work to build brand images, and to advertise with more than just factual health reasons for using soap. Few soaps had any differentiating factors, so brand image coupled with the new science of consumer psychology became paramount. Images of purity, beauty, romance, and sex appeal appear in soap advertising during this period.
Sivulka looks at the events during the period of 1920 to 1940 in chapter 5 and how they influenced the marketing of soap. The further evolution of the bathroom is explored, along with advances in the study of advertising and consumer behavior. For the first time market segmentation was employed to produce, advertise, and sell soap. New insights into the needs and wants of women as a target market were explored, especially working women. Advertising began to use negative appeals, such as the famous Lifebuoy “B.O.” campaigns in which people failed in life because of their body odor. The Lux “Hollywood” campaign used movie stars who gave testimonials or were said to use only Lux, thus showing the success of emulation campaigns. For the first time, photographs instead of drawings were used in advertisement.
In chapter 6, Sivulka continues to look at the period of 1920 to 1940 and reviews the history of advertising agencies and the role of women in constructing campaigns. Stereotypes that existed in advertisements during this period are reviewed as well as the relationship of soap to soap operas.
Sivulka devotes chapter 7 to assessing the black consumer culture in relation to soap use. The stereotypes of black culture during soap’s history are reviewed here. Numerous advertisement are shown that try to target the American Black as a separate segment, but many of these advertisement are not flattering.
The final section is one of the most useful in the book, providing a complete summary and tying everything together as a history of consumer culture traced through the use of soap. It is amazing to note that nationally advertised, brand‐name soap made its way from a seldom‐used luxury item to a necessity in a remarkably short span of time (l875‐1940, or 65 years). What once was an all purpose generic product used for washing the body, clothes, and floors has evolved into a plethora of specialty soap products, including bar soaps, liquid soaps, gel soaps, body washes, beauty cleansers, and moisturizing, deodorizing, children’s, antibacterial, and other formulas. There is an abundance of brands today, although the early companies (Pears, P&G, Lever Brothers, Colgate‐Palmolive) are still major players.
Overall, Sivulka illustrates how cleanliness has come to symbolize a civilized person. Advertising shows that keeping clean insures health, romance, material wealth, and acceptance into society. The book provides insights about body conceptions, social class, gender, and race, with soap as the driver of change. The book is well‐written, although tends toward an academic dissertation style. In places the book can also be repetitious, as material in the opening chapters is covered again in the central detail chapters and again in the afterward. Despite these few issues, the book is a fascinating history of branding, advertising, and cultural change, all through the vehicle of soap.
The book also contains extensive source notations, a complete bibliography, many illustrations and photos, and an excellent index. Not only is the book entertaining reading from a historical branding perspective, but also tremendous source material for academic research in the cultural history of advertising or higher‐level classroom assignments.
