The power of multi-modal collaboration: supporting the transitional experiences of students with learning disabilities to achieve their postsecondary educational goals Open Access

Research has consistently indicated the need to enhance the transition process from high school to postsecondary education so that this process becomes manageable and seamless for all students. Since the 1980s, the United States Federal government has actively sought to advance the education of students with disabilities through legislative measures such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The framework established by the IDEA for active participation is now integral to mapping students’ Individualized Education Programs (IEPs). Additionally, the 1990 and 1997 amendments to the IDEA addressed a more collaborative approach, with students being expected to take an active role in planning their transition. However, despite the efforts to promote the inclusion of students with learning disabilities, studies suggest that their active engagement and participation in transition planning fall below the desired level (Gartland and Strosnider, 2023; Gil, 2007; Juarez et al., 2023; Thapa et al., 2023; Yu et al., 2018; Zeng et al., 2022, 2024; Wucherphennig, 2024).

Research highlights the significance of IEP/504 plans in fostering self-advocacy and self-determination skills among students with disabilities; however, the effectiveness of the plans in teaching these skills varies, often leaving students underprepared for their postsecondary transition (Peña-Villegas, 2024). Self-advocacy refers to the ability of students to understand and articulate their own needs and rights, especially in academic settings. This understanding is vital for students with learning disabilities, as it effectively empowers them to communicate their needs. Self-determination involves making informed choices and taking control of one’s life, emphasizing the significance of autonomy and agency for individuals with learning disabilities. Both of these competencies are crucial for students to effectively access resources, seek necessary accommodations and engage with support services, thereby facilitating a smoother and more successful transition to postsecondary education. Cultivating self-advocacy and self-determination is integral to navigating the educational landscape and empowering students to understand, assert and autonomously address their needs, especially in a new and more independent higher education environment. However, current transition services are often inadequate in equipping students with these crucial skills, leaving them unprepared to advocate for the necessary accommodations or support at the postsecondary level (Gil, 2007; Juarez et al., 2023; Peña-Villegas, 2024, 2025; Wucherphennig, 2024; Zeng et al., 2022, 2024).

Research has consistently documented parent involvement as a salient factor contributing to students’ persistence and academic success, emphasizing an acute need for effective family engagement (Freeman and Kirksey, 2023; Gartland and Strosnider, 2023; Johnson et al., 2022; Landmark et al., 2013; Scruggs et al., 2021; Wilburn, 2023; Williams et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2023; Wucherphennig, 2024; Zeng et al., 2022, 2024). Self-determination among students with learning disabilities is fostered by parents who support learning, have high expectations, empower self-advocacy and motivate goal-setting (Shogren and Ward, 2018; Wucherphennig, 2024; Zeng et al., 2022, 2024). As such, to graduate from high school prepared for their postsecondary objectives, students with learning disabilities and their parents/guardians must be part of the disability conversation to create a transition plan, set goals and discuss information regarding the landscape and legalities of obtaining postsecondary support services for their learning disability. Because parents of students with learning disabilities are essential allies in promoting self-determination and academic competency, understanding the parents/guardians’ experience of assisting their students transition from high school to their postsecondary college/university of choice is necessary to best to meet the students’ transitional needs, and ensure they successfully enroll, persist, and graduate.

The dissertation study of Peña-Villegas (2024), “Parent/Guardian Perceptions of Postsecondary Transition and Matriculation of Students with Learning Disabilities: A Qualitative Case Study” was designed to contribute to the research on integrating students with learning disabilities into higher education by way of a holistic approach centered on parent/guardian collaboration pre and post transition. One delimitation was that this research focused only on students with learning disabilities and did not include the experiences of students with other cognitive or physical disabilities. Findings illustrate that students with learning disabilities can achieve their postsecondary objectives through active and intentional collaboration among students, families, school staff, disability support systems and educational outreach programs. These findings are significant in suggesting the need to reevaluate and redesign high school transition programs to encompass a more holistic approach. The study’s findings, together with the researcher’s personal and professional experiences, formed the basis of “The Peña-Villegas Empowerment Model: Enhancing Successful Transitions, Postsecondary Persistence, and Completion for Students with Learning Disabilities” ( Appendix A). This student-focused model is structured to provide a series of recommended steps to facilitate and promote proactive parent/guardian collaboration as well as integrate necessary support services with the goal of providing an effective and ongoing wrap-around preparation foundation for students with learning disabilities transitioning to postsecondary education. This model augments existing approaches with its strong grounding in transition theory and trauma-informed educational interventions. Today’s diverse student population encounters a multitude of challenges, many of which emanate from various forms of trauma, including learning disabilities, that can significantly impact their educational experience. A trauma-informed educational approach recognizes the prevalence of trauma and its effects on learning and development. Schools are increasingly understanding that addressing trauma is crucial for student wellbeing and for fostering a supportive learning environment. The implementation of this practical model can be viewed through a trauma-informed lens in that it contributes to the Multi-tiered System of Supports (MTSS), a collaborative, inclusive, and accessible approach to differentiating and personalizing instruction and intervention so that students can achieve academic and life success (Sugai and Horner, 2009; Wolf and Scuichetti, 2024). The supportive intervention as outlined in this model can enhance learning outcomes by understanding the potential transitional barriers that trauma poses to cognitive development and academic achievement and finding meaningful ways to address and cope with these challenges.

The problem addressed by Peña-Villegas (2024) was that despite the increasing enrollment of students with learning disabilities within higher education institutions, they lag in degree attainment (Gartland and Strosnider, 2023; Juarez et al., 2023; Thapa et al., 2023; Yu et al., 2018). Moreover, the findings of Shogren and Ward (2018), Wucherphennig (2024), Zeng et al. (2022) and Zeng et al. (2024) reinforce that students are more likely to pursue their postsecondary education, be independent, and secure stable employment when they experience self-determination and self-advocacy with assistance and guidance. Thus further research is needed to explore parents/guardian active participation in IEP/504 and how this might bridge school-based gaps and ensure successful transitions and degree completion.

The purpose of this single qualitative case study was to explore the perceptions of parents/guardians of students with disabilities regarding their students’ ability to successfully transfer from public high school and matriculate into their college/university of choice. Additionally, this study explored the parents/guardians’ perceived preparedness to assist their student in self-advocating and requesting and utilizing support services to successfully persist past the first semester/quarter of their postsecondary education and obtain their degree.

The study’s three research questions were designed to explore and understand the transitional needs of students with learning disabilities from the perspectives of their parents/guardians:

Schlossberg’s transition theory (1981, 1995, 2011) was used to understand the phenomenon of interest and guide this research study. This theory aligns with trauma-informed practices in that the focus is on supporting individual students’ transitions by way of MTSS, a collaborative, evidence-based approach to differentiating and personalizing instruction and intervention that is designed to integrate academic and behavioral interventions to meet students’ specific academic and social and emotional needs. “Transition,” as defined by Schlossberg et al. (1995), is “an event, or non-event, that results in changed relationships, routines, assumptions, and roles” (p. 27). Schlossberg (1981) indicated that three sets of variables affected adaptation to a transition: perception of the transition, pre-transition and post-transition environmental characteristics, and characteristics of individuals experiencing the transition. As stated by Schlossberg et al. (1995), “Adaptation to transition depends on the individual’s ability to balance demands, mobilize resources, and use effective coping strategies, resulting in either growth or, in some cases, deterioration” (p. 27). Due to adaptation not always being achieved by the individual, Schlossberg later reconceptualized the model as dealing with the individual’s response to transition (DeVilbiss, 2014).

Consequently, this transition model can provide a structure for analyzing the response to any transition, including the transitions of students with learning disabilities. Multiple variables influence the student’s high school to college/university transitional experience, including policies, procedures, institutional resources, demographic factors and learning disabilities. Sargent and Schlossberg (1988) indicated that to cope well with transition, what needs to be addressed are the situation, support services and strategies for coping, referring to these as the four S’s. Applying Schlossberg’s theory to Peña-Villegas (2024) included the following core elements:

1. Situation: Student is transitioning from a public high school into their public college/university of choice.

2. Self: Student’s learning disability, weaknesses, strengths, personal difficulties, interests and demographic factors that may impact the transition.

3. Supports: Systems, services, programs or entities that are likely to assist the student in managing the transition and the associated accommodations.

4. Strategies for coping: Individual transition plans and action plans to increase the knowledge, skills and strengths of the student to address and cope with their specific transitional experience.

Through Schlossberg’s four elements, the researcher sought to better understand from the parents’/guardians’ perspectives, how students’ transition from high school impacted their ability to successfully matriculate into their college/university. The experiences of the parents/guardians’ preparedness to assist their student with their transition from high school to college/university provided key insights into the transition planning, including pre-transition and post-transition factors. The parents/guardians and student’s IEP/504 transition planning and the available resources were pertinent to preparing for a successful transfer, enrollment, matriculation and willingness to access supportive disability services and resources. A successful adaptation, as outlined by DeVilbiss (2014), depends on the ability to effectively engage with Sargent and Schlossberg’s (1988) four elements to navigate and manage transitions, resulting in positive outcomes and personal growth.

A single qualitative case study was conducted to obtain the perspectives from the experiences of parents/guardians of high school graduating students with learning disabilities. Qualitative research allows for a deep understanding of how individuals interpret their experiences and construct their world (Bloomberg, 2023, 2026). A case study research design was deemed appropriate because, as Yin (2017) indicates, this design can be used to learn and gain insights into the situation or case as a “bounded system.” A case study can be used when an area of interest is in the uniqueness and commonalities found in education and social service, as it pertains to people and programs (Stake, 1995). Furthermore, according to Bloomberg (2018, 2023, 2026), case study research analyzes real-life current cases that are in progress to obtain information that is not affected by the passing of time and where potential change and development can be thoroughly explored. A qualitative case study design allowed the researcher to explore the “why” behind transitional challenges by capturing the experiences and insights of the research participants regarding a “bounded system”, that is, the high school to postsecondary education transitional process.

The target population for this research study was parents/guardians of students identified with an learning disability who had an active IEP or 504 and had indicated that their postsecondary objective was to attend a California community college or a 4-year public university. Initially, the research setting included two public high schools within a school district in northern California. Due to a lack of sufficient participation from parents/guardians, the research site was subsequently expanded to include the entire state of California. According to the California Department of Education (2024a, b), during the 2023–2024 academic year, the number of graduates by ethnicity in California was as follows: 26,138 African American, 2,443 American Indian or Alaska Native, 47,865 Asian, 12,944 Filipino, 286,675 Hispanic or Latino, 2,209 Pacific Islander, 106,045 White and 19,208 Two or More Races. Regarding students with learning disabilities who graduated in 2023–2024, 10,857 out of 50,141 graduating seniors with a high school diploma (21.7%) met the UC/CSU admission requirements.

To achieve saturation, the research sample consisted of 21 parents/guardians. Participants were selected by way of purposeful criterion-based sampling based on the identified target population and the study’s stated inclusion criteria regarding their students:

1. The student has a learning disability

2. The student has an active IEP/504 plan

3. The student had attended a public California non-continuation high school

4. The student has registered, submitted an intent to register, or is currently attending a public postsecondary institution within California, specifically a California Community College (CCC), California State University (CSU) or the University of California (UC).

The researcher received approval from the National University Institutional Review Board (IRB) to conduct the study. Upon approval, she followed up with the school district superintendent to obtain written documentation of their authorization to conduct this research study with parents and guardians. The Belmont Report includes three core principles: respect for persons, beneficence and justice, all of which are relevant to research ethics when humans are involved in a study (NCPHSBBR, 1979). The first principle, respect for persons, calls for participants to be treated as autonomous, and those with diminished autonomy are to be protected (NCPHSBBR, 1979). Research participants were over 18, and they voluntarily elected to participate in the study. Their privacy was protected by providing them with anonymity, hiding their identities, upholding confidentiality and not disclosing their personal information to others. The collected data were coded to ensure anonymity, and pseudonyms were assigned to all collected documents, transcripts and notes. Where identifiable information was collected, the researcher had sole access, and this was safely secured. The second Belmont principle, beneficence, ensures that all participants are treated ethically by respecting their decisions, securing their well-being and protecting them from harm (NCPHSBBR, 1979). Before conducting this study, participants provided consent. As indicated by Privitera and Ahlgrim-Delzell (2018), informed consent is obtained by explaining to participants in understandable language all aspects of their role in the study and obtaining a signed agreement whereby they confirm their voluntary willingness to partake in the study. The third Belmont principle, justice, requires that all participants be treated equally while avoiding any unduly imposed burdens upon them (NCPHSBBR, 1979). Once the University IRB approved the study, permission was sought from the local school district to identify students with learning disabilities who planned on transitioning to a post-secondary college or university. Interview questions were open-ended and focused on exploring participants’ perceptions from their points of view, and with their permission, tape-recording occurred to produce verbatim transcriptions. Member checking of all transcripts and researcher interpretations was facilitated following data analysis to ensure transparency and fairness. In doing so, participants were provided an opportunity to confirm that the representation of their narrative was accurate, thereby ensuring that they were confident the researcher had authentically interpreted and portrayed their perspectives and viewpoints.

Data were collected by way of two methods, individual interviews and critical incident questionnaires (CIQs), thereby achieving triangulation, a necessary component of qualitative research (Bloomberg, 2023, 2026; Denzin, 1989; Flick, 2023). The semi-structured interview protocol, the primary method of data collection, was field-tested with an expert panel and the collected data was obtained in English or Spanish, allowing research participants to select their language of choice. All responses were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. As a secondary data collection method, a CIQ was administered. This method is useful due to qualitative research emphasizing a process that is based on collecting data from the reported memory of observations previously made by the participant (Flanagan, 1954). By using the CIQ, participants had an opportunity to self-report moments of significance that allowed for a richer understanding of experiences through their description of both high and low points (Bloomberg, 2023, 2026). Participants shared insights regarding the transitional gap as they reflected on their positive and negative experiences which allowed the researcher to connect and cross-verify data collected through individual interviews.

Qualitative thematic analysis is a structured process that provides a rich depiction of the data that is conducted until saturation is reached (Bloomberg, 2023, 2026). Schlossberg’s transitional theory (1981, 1995, 2011) was the theoretical framework used for analyzing the collected data. The researcher conducted reflexive thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2022) which included coding of identified statements, phrases and selecting relevant verbatim quotations that provided an understanding of the participant’s perceptions of their student’s transitional and matriculation process. Manual coding allowed the researcher to immerse herself in the data through the identification of the emerging themes by touching, highlighting, color coding and categorizing the participants’ responses while also considering the human nature of the participants’ nonverbal cues (Bloomberg, 2023). The researcher examined linguistic features such as metaphors, keywords, topical transitions, changes of tone, pauses, as well as any information that was being repeated or omitted. The researcher also drew upon her own knowledge and experience of the transition and matriculation process to identify categories and sub-categories.

Open coding provided an initial exploration, followed by axial coding, which allowed the researcher to organize and connect emerging themes and patterns and determine the relationships among them that reflect more abstract concepts, thereby providing a deeper understanding of the data. The final process of selective coding focused the analysis on refining the components of the study’s theoretical framework, which were Schlossberg’s four elements that are inherent in the transitional process: situation, self, supports and strategies for coping. Coding of the transcripts occurred by highlighting relevant portions and developing a series of coding schemes, and emerging research themes were created from the coding schemes. To derive themes, the researcher also reviewed the literature and reflected on her own personal experience with the phenomenon of interest. As explained by Bloomberg (2023), “The evidence from the dataset supports the themes in the form of excerpts from interviews that link the researcher’s assertions to what was said by research participants” (p. 333). Data interpretation contextualizes findings within the research framework, allowing a researcher to reflect on the implications and significance of the themes (Bloomberg, 2023, 2026). Member checking is typically applied following data analysis to confirm the accuracy of themes and descriptions to ensure the credibility of the study’s findings, analysis, and interpretation (Bloomberg, 2023). This strategy was achieved by way of participants’ verification of their interview transcripts and the researcher’s description of the findings, all of which were reviewed and approved.

Trustworthiness refers to the quality assurance process in qualitative research (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Morgan and Ravitch, 2018). Qualitative research is assessed by its trustworthiness, a vital component that requires several techniques to determine the study’s credibility, dependability, confirmability and transferability (Bloomberg, 2023, 2026). The researcher employed multiple measures to establish a trustworthy and rigorous study that honored and ensured authentic representation of participants’ voices. Audio recording and verbatim transcriptions, ongoing reflexivity and journaling, extensive engagement with the data and peer debriefing were conducted to establish credibility. Dependability was ensured by describing the methods used and explaining the sequence of steps taken to present the conclusions derived from data collection, analysis and interpretation. An audit trail was maintained throughout the study, comprising raw data, journal notes and interpretations. This approach ensured transparency, thereby allowing others to verify the study’s findings. To maintain the confirmability of the findings, the data can be traced through the retention of all records related to raw data and verbatim transcriptions. All aspects of the study’s methodology and the research findings were clearly explained, providing readers with a comprehensive understanding to assist them in determining applicability and transferability regarding their own setting or context, and avoiding any potential misunderstanding of the methodology and research findings.

Qualitative coding of all interviews and critical incident data resulted in the identification of seven major themes, which were explored and interpreted in relation to relevant literature and guided by the study’s three research questions. The theoretical framework was used as a lens to develop themes that addressed the factors that affect adaptation to a transition: perception of the transition, pre-transition and post-transition environmental characteristics, and characteristics of individuals experiencing the transition. It is evident that adaptation or response to a transition will hinge on the individual’s ability to balance demands, mobilize and manage resources, and employ effective coping strategies (DeVilbiss, 2014; Schlossberg et al., 1995). Overall, this research underscores the critical need for a holistic and collaborative wrap-around support system for students with learning disabilities in successfully transitioning from high school to postsecondary educational opportunities.

Three themes were developed for Research Question 1 regarding parent/guardian knowledge, skills and actions to support a successful transition:

Theme 1 illustrates how, by attending their students’ IEP/504 meeting, parents actively participated by providing input, collaborating with school staff, advocating for their student’s needs and goals, providing emotional support and ensuring a tailored transition plan. Wilburn (2023) indicates the important role that parents hold as a support system for their student by modeling advocacy support, which contributed to postsecondary academic success. In this study, the modeled advocacy support was illustrated by parents/guardians who shared that they assisted their students in their IEP/504 transition plan meetings by viewing these as an opportunity to collaborate with various entities within the student’s school site. The development of effective IEP/504 plans resulted from the parents/guardians’ ability to proactively engage in the transition process and share information about students’ learning styles, unique needs, challenges and goals. Parents/guardians also spoke about providing their students with various types of support, including emotional support, financial support and active advocacy as their students navigated the transitional phase from high school toward their postsecondary educational objective. As Gartland and Strosnider (2023) emphasize, key players in the planning and transition process include not only the IEP team and other related professionals but also the students themselves and their parents/guardians based on the IDEA requirement that students’ participate in establishing their IEP goals related to postsecondary transition. Zeng et al. (2022) and Zeng et al. (2024) add that parent involvement is critical in fostering self-determination and autonomy among students with learning disabilities, which supports their enrollment and persistence in postsecondary education. These findings are also consistent with previous literature that calls for parents to become more actively involved in the transition process (Landmark et al., 2013). Juarez et al. (2023) explain that the parents/guardians’ language barriers, inadequate translation services and perceived skillsets are often a reason for their lack of or limited participation in transition planning. Furthermore, as stated by Freeman and Kirksey (2023), parents’ culture and experiences can shape their perception of the special education process, thus affecting how and in what ways they feel comfortable interacting with school personnel and responding to institutional expectations.

Theme 2 reveals the significance of the students’ active participation and involvement with their IEP/504. Findings indicated that when students can understand and address their own disability and are present at their IEP/504 meeting, they develop the potential and ability to become active participants and agents of change in their transitional plans. Koca et al. (2023) stipulate that self-awareness is required for self-advocacy, and that for students to be able to advocate for themselves, they must first understand their needs, areas for improvement and strengths. In this study, parents/guardians testified that the transition plan was created by considering their student’s stated needs and aspirations through the IEP/504 meetings because their student was able to express their insights regarding their own needs, challenges, preferences, concerns and personal goals. Koca et al. (2023) also explain that the IEP/504 design and implementation process is critical for student self-advocacy, which was noted in this study with some parents sharing that their students took advantage of the opportunity to express their postsecondary goals and thus developed their own transitional plans accordingly by remaining actively engaged in their IEP/504 meetings.

Students are likely to take on an active participatory role if they are encouraged to speak for themselves and if the parent prepares them to articulate their needs (Chronopoulou, 2024). The findings of Chronopoulou (2024) are in alignment with this study’s findings, as students tend not to participate in the development of their transition plans in situations when they are given the option to attend, or were excused from participating, leading to them withdrawing from opportunities to engage. Some students were left overhearing conversations about their disability due to their parents/guardians avoiding a direct discussion with them. Other parents/guardians faced challenges as their student did not accept their disability or resisted engaging in dialogue to avoid feeling different or ostracized. This is consistent with the findings of Munsell and Schwartz (2021), who share that a student’s involvement in their transition planning is impacted by knowledge regarding their own disability. These findings are also consistent with Zeng et al. (2022) and Zeng et al. (2024), who explain that parents directly influence student self-determination and autonomy, hence highlighting the importance of parents remaining proactive throughout their student’s IEP/504 planning process.

Theme 3 underscores the crucial role that parents and guardians play in guiding their students through the college search and transition from high school to college or university. This theme highlighted the emotional and psychological support parents provide, how they maintained open lines of communication, sought advice from educators and ensured their student received the necessary individualized accommodations. Most of the parents/guardians in this study had a 4-year college/university education. These parents/guardians reported that they effectively supported their student’s educational journey and transitions by offering guidance regarding university admission steps, engaging with educators, seeking resources and providing emotional encouragement and practical advice. As Chronopoulou (2024) states, parents with a higher education level often have a positive effect on their students’ transition knowledge and skill competence because they have acquired practical knowledge through their own lived experiences. Some parents/guardians stated that they adopted a hands-on holistic approach by assisting their student prepare for success by supporting them with course selections, study skills, time management skills, organizational strategies, and the various other activities and requirements inherent in the college/university application process. Other parents/guardians engaged in conversations with their students and, in this way, provided them with emotional support, disclosure and self-advocacy skills. These parents/guardians explained that their conversations empowered students by addressing the necessity of disclosing their disability, understanding the advantages and disadvantages of disclosure, privacy concerns, stigma and accessing the support needed to succeed at the postsecondary level. Other conversations centered on life skills such as learning to engage in conversations and interact effectively with teachers and staff. These findings are consistent with Trainor et al. (2023), who indicate that student engagement is bridged in the transition process through collaboration and communication among families and teachers. Like any learning process, understanding transition services requires that parents are engaged with the relevant information, asking questions and exploring alternatives.

Two themes were developed for Research Question 2 to illustrate the ways in which the students’ transition plans were supportive and effective:

Theme 4 demonstrates how the transition plan that was created, coupled with collaborative activities, impacted the parents/guardians’ ability to effectively guide and support their student throughout the transitional process. This theme also illustrates the importance of creating IEP/504 transition plans that are individualized and structured to encompass the student’s strengths and specific needs, in order to provide both the students and their parents/guardians with the skills, goal-setting ability and accommodations needed to achieve transitional success. Talbert and Fleming (2023) state that if students struggle with the necessary skills to be successful in college, specific skills should be stated in the transition plan as targeted goals and objectives. Students are motivated by developing a transition plan that identifies their strengths and stated goals by establishing a carefully established implementation timeline. A transition plan that is relevant and easy to comprehend offers the student the necessary motivation and commitment to persevere. In this study, some parents/guardians shared that their students were learning to advocate for themselves through developing goals specific to self-advocacy. As such, students were empowered to develop the ability to navigate college life through transition plans that provided them with strategies to acquire the necessary social skills to succeed. The findings of this study are consistent with Zeng et al. (2024), who state that when a transition plan is student-centered and collaboratively developed, the student has more potential to reach their long-term objectives. This, coupled with parents/guardians becoming transitional advocates, facilitates future academic success.

Parents/guardians with less education may not be able to provide sufficient support through active involvement in the IEP/504 meeting due to their inability to engage with and understand the relevant information needed for the meeting and may also not be as involved with their student at home and school due to their own work commitments (Aleman-Tovar et al., 2022). In this study, parents/guardians shared some significant challenges with transition planning; some could not provide information, and others did not remember having a plan, were unsure if there was one, or were unable to describe their plan. Additionally, there were several barriers to parental involvement, such as being treated differently because of their race or ethnicity, a factor that is consistent with the findings of Johnson et al. (2022).

Theme 5 illustrates parents/guardians’ understanding of their and their students’ responsibilities in accessing disability services. This theme brings awareness to the concerns pertaining to stigma, isolation, discrimination and the lowered expectations of postsecondary staff that parents/guardians perceive as challenges to disclosing the learning disability. The National Association of Special Education Teachers (2023) advised that it is essential for parents to balance their involvement, not limit their students’ agency, and be able to empower the students toward self-advocacy. This sense of empowerment was evident in this study with some of the research participants explaining that to receive services, the student has the responsibility to disclose the need to understand their rights and responsibilities under the American Disabilities Act (ADA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act (1990, 1997), and the need to ensure they received the required accommodations and support. This skillset required requesting help and having the ability to self-advocate, which is an adaptive coping strategy (Thapa et al., 2023). In this regard, Rodriguez (2023) discusses the “circular relationship” between the student’s ability to develop self-advocacy skills and self-awareness, explaining that this is based on having a sense of trust of the participating adults, their disability being normalized by these adults, and the adults’ response to their needs. There were some parents/guardians in this study who relayed that they did not know how, did not understand how, or had difficulty obtaining disability services. Moreover, some lacked the awareness that disability services actually existed at their postsecondary institution.

Many of the parents/guardians in this study explained that disclosing the learning disability at the college/university had directly impacted college graduation success. Thapa et al. (2023) state that studies have demonstrated that when students can advocate for themselves and request help, they are more successful than those who do not have this skillset. The ability to seek services, receive support services, thrive in the school environment, manage academics and navigate coursework leads to a successful graduation. Lefler et al. (2023) indicate that students with learning disabilities often fear the negative perceptions they may encounter from peers and professors. This concern was shared by the parents/guardians in this study, who explained the perceived challenges that students could face if they disclosed their disability. This phenomenon may contribute to the discrepancy between the rate of students reporting having a disability and the rate of students registering with their campus disability center (Postsecondary National Policy Institute, 2023).

Two themes were developed for Research Question 3, which shed light on parents/guardians’ perceived opportunities and challenges they encountered in assisting their student throughout the transitional process:

Theme 6 captures the vital role that family involvement, mentorship, educational professionals and educational support programs play in supporting students with learning disabilities transitioning from high school to college/university. In this study, parents/guardians discussed various support systems that helped them navigate the transition process, including high school counselors, general education teachers and special education teachers. This aligns with the research of Davis and Garfield (2021), who emphasize the role played by “partnership activities” that are designed to energize, motivate, engage and guide students to create their own success, and that these activities also require the participation of multiple stakeholders, including postsecondary educational institutions and outside agencies. In this study, students benefited from exploring campus resources, joining student organizations and connecting with other students with learning disabilities or similar experiences. Transitional guidance and assistance, information on how to enroll in college, parental college information and different new opportunities were obtained through participating in the Early Academic Outreach Program (EAOP). Additional support was received from support groups, organizations, conference committees, other parents and mentors who provided transitional assistance. Zeng et al. (2022), Zeng et al. (2024) emphasize the important role played by transitional assistance at an institutional level, indicating that when students believe their success is possible, the likelihood is greater that they will be motivated to apply effort and persist. Moreover, to best serve students, Zilvinskis (2022), in reference to first-generation college students, recommends that one should refrain from “treating students with disabilities as a monolithic group, for they have multiple identities and varying experiences” (p. 90). This is an important consideration in striving to provide an individualized learning experience for all students to meet their own specific needs and requirements to support a successful transition.

Theme 7 sheds light on the struggles that parents/guardians face in preparing to help their students for college/university enrollment and the matriculation process. This includes the need for college knowledge and information, the parents/guardians’ lack of or limited familiarity with the accommodation process, and the support that is required to help their student understand eligibility criteria, college selection processes and protocols, enrollment details and financial aid. This theme also speaks to the experience of educational inequities and the limited emotional and psychological support that was often perceived.

The challenges parents/guardians faced in helping their student with the enrollment and matriculation processes are due to a lack of understanding of the process itself and a need for step-by-step assistance. Juarez et al. (2023) note a limitation regarding “funds of knowledge”. As these authors explain, “parents having a high value for education and knowledge about particular pieces of the college process but missing certain components of how to get there” (2023, p. 50). In this study, the parents’/guardians’ experiences of the college application process, enrollment procedure and transition were found to be challenging, complex, intimidating and overwhelming. Ervin (2023) indicates that in assisting first-generation students, they need support and consistency from mentoring relationships to create a network that contributes to increased enrollment and college/university persistence. The perceived rights and roles as parents of college students with learning disabilities in terms of their high school IEP/504 experiences can significantly impact postsecondary outcomes. In this study, parents/guardians shared that they had the same rights as when their student was in high school. However, despite students still having protection under the ADA, parents/guardians no longer shoulder the responsibility of the student’s postsecondary education, and it is therefore crucial that students develop self-advocacy skills and are knowledgeable of disability laws (Wilburn, 2023). Although several laws are designed to protect students with disabilities, these laws vary with regard to the amount of knowledge that they have about their rights, which is often a barrier in the enrollment and matriculation process. A further challenge that parents/guardians disclosed was that their students faced a lack of college preparation, indicating that the transition plans were often insufficient. Other challenges resulted from limited support services and understaffed disability service offices, which impacted their ability to receive timely and necessary accommodations. This is consistent with findings reported by the Postsecondary National Policy Institute (2023) in which students indicated facing classroom barriers to their ability to participate, including faculty not wanting to provide accommodations, instructors not responding to accommodation requests and faculty not having knowledge of disability accommodations. Additionally, parents/guardians explained that their students had difficulties due to their disability in understanding how to pay for college, request assistive opportunities and address the necessary information. This finding is consistent with Wilburn (2023), who notes that parents often navigate the complicated world of disability eligibility with insufficient guidance and information regarding disability services, program eligibility and access to resources.

The findings of Peña-Villegas (2024) indicate that an effective IEP/504 transition plan requires a proactive, holistic and collaborative approach that actively includes the parent/guardian, the student and other stakeholders including disability services. The recent research findings of Zeng et al. (2024), Wucherphenning (2024) and Pena-Villegas (2024) are consistent with earlier findings that illustrate that self-determination, self-advocacy and parental involvement in a student’s educational process are essential factors in determining successful postsecondary transitions and completion (Freeman and Kirksey, 2023; Gartland and Strosnider, 2023; Johnson et al., 2022; Scruggs et al., 2021). Moreover, the study’s findings align with Schlossberg’s theoretical framework (1981, 2011), which outlines four key transitional elements that contribute to a successful transition: situation, self, supports and strategies for coping. The researcher also connected and organized the findings according to the theory’s three sets of variables that affect the individual’s adaptation: perception of the transition, pre-transition and post-transition environmental characteristics. The study’s findings constitute a trauma-informed approach that can be used to guide inclusive educational decisions within a multi-tiered system of intervention and supports for students with learning disabilities. Specifically, these findings provide in-depth knowledge and valuable insights for policymakers, educators in both high school and postsecondary educational institutions and educational researchers, and can enable them to work toward establishing practices that will increase the successful transition and matriculation of students with learning disabilities. Based on the findings, the following implications and recommendations can pave the way for targeted comprehensive interventions to better understand, address and improve the postsecondary success of students with learning disabilities:

The findings of this study affirmed the importance of parent or guardian involvement in promoting postsecondary enrollment among students with learning disabilities, and the role played by families in the transition planning process cannot be overstated. Empowering parents and guardians with the knowledge and resources needed to support their child’s transition is vital, and this is a key component of “The Peña-Villegas Empowerment Model” (Peña-Villegas, 2024, 2025). The implication is that schools should build close partnerships to foster student advocacy skills and promote the transition from high school to postsecondary education. Such partnerships will not only create opportunities for students to learn and practice self-advocacy but also build systems of support to promote student self-advocacy and ongoing persistence. Organized workshops and informational sessions can highlight the shift from high school support to the self-advocacy required in higher education, creating a strong support network around the student. Finally, professional development is essential to address planning for and actualizing postsecondary transition goals, improving disability awareness and sensitivity, developing strategies for improved support services and instruction, promoting and enhancing best practices, and implementing effective use of reasonable accommodations. Left unaddressed, the transitional needs of students with learning disabilities will not be met, leaving them to face accessibility and discrimination barriers that will further impede their postsecondary and career goals.

This study demonstrated that engaging parents or guardians in secondary transition can lead to several significant benefits for students, including an increased likelihood of postsecondary enrollment and more effective self-advocacy skills. Strong policy advocacy forms the foundation for enhancing support for students with learning disabilities, emphasizing the pressing need for policymakers to understand the unique challenges these students confront. Moreover, operating with a trauma-informed lens involves consideration of many interrelated factors and requires buy-in regarding policies that are sensitive to students with disabilities, both in terms of interventions and ongoing support structures. Federal and state policies should provide additional guidance and funding for schools to engage parents and provide professional development to educators and administrators for promoting parent involvement. Policies should also support programs and provide resources for parents and guardians to enhance their roles in supporting students’ learning and development both inside and outside of school, which will require complex, thoughtful, and comprehensive planning and implementation.

There are various avenues of research worthy of exploration based on this study’s findings: Additional research is recommended to (a) identify transition activities and goals that are linked to positive outcomes; (b) assess student support and disability services and identify promising practices and areas in need of attention; (c) examine parent/guardian perceptions of IEP/504 to inform evidence-based strategies that can enhance postsecondary success for students with learning disabilities which could include a mixed-methods approach to gather insights regarding parents/guardians’ perceptions pertaining to the transition process and its various elements; and (d) explore the transition and matriculation of first-generation students with learning disabilities to determine the needs and supportive practices of this specific population. Additionally, one limitation was that this research focused only on students with learning disabilities and did not include the experiences of students with other cognitive or physical disabilities, and so future studies may be expanded in this regard. Findings from research in all these recommended areas would be beneficial for strengthening disability policies, practices and programs geared toward supporting the successful transition, persistence, resilience and completion of students with learning disabilities.

Adapting to life as a college or university student is a complex challenge for those who learn differently, requiring a shift toward more personalized and comprehensive support systems, thus ensuring that students with learning disabilities are not just passive recipients of education but autonomous, resilient and empowered participants on their learning journey. This study’s findings provide responses to the research questions, shedding light on the theoretical framework and adding to the body of knowledge regarding parent/guardian engagement as a salient factor contributing to students’ persistence and academic success at the postsecondary level. These findings clearly align with Schlossberg’s transition theory (1981, 2011) and a combination of the four key elements involved (situation, self, supports and strategy for coping), revealing that an effective transition plan requires a holistic, collaborative approach. Moreover, the findings offer a trauma-informed approach that can guide inclusive educational decisions within a multi-tiered system of intervention and supports for students with learning disabilities.

To assist in addressing the transitional and postsecondary completion gap, a transformative, empowering model was created from this study’s findings, thereby offering a structured and proactive implementation plan to enhance successful postsecondary outcomes. This model (Peña-Villegas, 2024, 2025) demonstrates a trauma-informed approach by contributing to a MTSS, ensuring that students with learning disabilities receive the tools, skills, knowledge and resources they need for academic and personal growth. As the findings indicate, for the model to be effectively implemented requires collaboration and a sense of shared responsibility among all key stakeholders, with the full range of a school’s resources being accessible and comprehensively coordinated. Indeed, without this dynamic collaboration, students and their families are treated more as subjects of the educational process rather than as active partners by stifling and undermining their potential for self-advocacy, self-determination and agency.

Transition planning holds significant importance for leaders in special education, influencing the future success of students with learning disabilities in post-secondary settings. To achieve the goal of ensuring and facilitating successful transitions, persistence and completion at the postsecondary level, it is recommended that policy and practice should prioritize students’ needs by way of collaborative planning efforts that intentionally involve all key stakeholders (families, high school staff, colleges/university leadership and disability services) to enhance awareness and preparedness. This includes a holistic and inclusive approach that encompasses mentorship, tailored academic advising, mental health support and the development of life skills and self-advocacy. These proactive efforts will ultimately provide the necessary multi-modal support for students with learning disabilities, leading to overcoming obstacles and increasing the potential to achieve their postsecondary educational goals. Indeed, the more that can be done to enhance persistence and completion for a diverse student body, the more we are able to champion overall student success. Meeting the needs of students who learn in different ways empowers individuals, strengthens communities and bridges gaps in educational equity by fostering lifelong learning, informed decision-making, and resilient personal and professional development. The goal is to ensure that students with learning disabilities, especially those who are first-generation or economically disadvantaged, successfully transition from high school into their chosen postsecondary institution and persist in their program of study. Investing in wrap-around support through multi-modal and multi-tiered collaboration for students with learning disabilities will hopefully provide a crucial foundation for transforming educational experiences and facilitating valuable and life-changing opportunities for future generations.

Objective. By the end of their junior year (11th grade), students will know the name of their disability, how to explain it to others, decide upon a postsecondary pathway, and develop the skillset to connect and access support from the postsecondary student disability centers.

• Develop a curriculum that fosters a growth mindset that integrates (1) navigating learning disabilities within postsecondary education, (2) intentional self-advocacy skill development, (3) critical self-awareness skills, (4) communication skills to explain and disclose their disability(ies), (5) social skill development, (6) how to address stigma concerns, (7) understand state and federal laws about learning disabilities, and (8) how to write an effective appeal if they are dismissed from their college or university.

• Include sessions in 9th grade to introduce students to their IEP/504 plans, and by 10th grade, have student-led IEP/504 meetings.

• Facilitate interactive training sessions at the start of 9th grade where students identify their assets and strengths using self-assessment tools (e.g., StrengthsFinder), guide them in building effective relationships and teach self-advocacy skills to effectively leverage and communicate their abilities during IEP/504 meetings and other educational and professional settings.

• Provide information on all appropriate career and college options and provide awareness of the different postsecondary pathways.

• Create the space to have a voice about their postsecondary goals and the opportunity to develop goals that are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) to connect and access the support services from postsecondary institutions in 12th grade.

Objective. Establish transitional goals and resources for parents/guardians to help them proactively assist and support students with college and university transitions.

• Incorporate parent support specialists to guide and help parents become active participants in IEP/504 transition planning to increase parent/guardian collaboration, confidence, skills to develop a successful transition and parental advocacy.

• Front-load the parents/guardians to help increase their involvement in developing their student’s IEP/504 postsecondary transition plan and be able to create transitional goals that are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) that involve both the parent/guardian and the student.

• Implement procedures by school districts ensure the parents/guardians can state, define, and explain their student’s learning disability(ies).

• Embed parental support SMART goals within IEP/504 transition plan meetings to help the parent/guardian assist their student in meeting their postsecondary objectives.

• Provide parents/guardians with information regarding college, including campus visits, financial aid workshops, resource support, and information on how to appeal dismissals.

• After the student graduates, provide the parents/guardians and students with transitional summer support and resources to enroll, matriculate successfully, and access disability accommodations.

Objective. Ensure high school students with learning disabilities, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds, have access to college knowledge.

• Collaborate among high schools, local community colleges, and four-year universities to host college visits, including panels of students with learning disabilities and information from the disability support centers.

• Increase the ability to have parents/guardians and students research the universities, complete required paperwork, and facilitate visits.

• Provide family workshops on college readiness, mental health, homesickness, self-advocacy, parental advocacy, and guidance with a focus on the needs of students with learning disabilities.

• Create parent awareness sessions to differentiate the high school and college parental roles and expectations; help families gain an understanding of the shift of requirements and responsibilities from parents to students to access services at their respective colleges/universities.

• Provide federal/state funding to provide college knowledge sessions specifically to students with learning disabilities within the tutorial/support classroom, which will cover the following topics:

  • The difference between meeting high school graduation requirements and college admission requirements and raising the academic bar.

  • College admissions course requirements.

  • Financial aid awareness.

  • Shift in responsibilities from parent to student.

  • Create informative postsecondary conversation opportunities between students and parents/guardians.

  • Understand the various supportive resources and services at colleges and universities and how to access these.

  • Address stigma, mental health, and self-advocacy, anxiety, homesickness, uncertainty, new life experiences of a college student.

  • Develop a college student with disabilities panel with the opportunity of questions and answers, thereby offering high school students the ability to visualize themselves as college students despite their disability(ies).

Objective. Improve learning disability awareness, services, and provide supports for matriculated students within colleges/universities.

• Require all new and current faculty, instructors, staff, and student advisors to complete learning disability awareness training to foster an inclusive learning environment.

• Colleges/Universities will host transition sessions to help families prepare for a successful postsecondary transition and offer summer support on enrollment and disability services.

• Develop standardized service access across colleges and universities with clear documentation requirements and processes for students and families.

• Devise interventions that will provide universal support to access services to students who have not disclosed their learning disability(ies).

• When a university student faces potential dismissal due to lack of academic progress, assess for a learning disability and, if identified, proactively implement a holistic intervention plan with disability support services.

Objective. Establish collaborative relationships to ensure students and parents understand responsibility shifts and receive transitional support from secondary and postsecondary institutions during the summer after the student’s graduation.

• Facilitate communication and joint sessions among high school and college/university disability support staff, students, and parents regarding transitional responsibilities.

• Collaborate to support the students that have submitted their intent to register, with a transitional IEP/504 plan meeting with staff from the student disability center in attendance (either in person or virtually) to ensure students receive (1) summer information transitional supports, (2) emotional support, (3) encouragement, skills and understanding of the importance to self-identify, (4) be assisted in meeting disability documentation processes, and (5) receive follow-up from college support centers.

Objective. College/Universities create accessible, family-friendly transition and persistence information and resources to support students and families.

• Develop an online portal with resources and webinars that detail transition processes, financial literacy and aid, and the postsecondary college/universities options.

• Host in-person and virtual sessions for families on the following topics: (1) college expectations; (2) accessibility; (3) support services; (4) preparation for postsecondary life; (5) self-advocacy and awareness; (6) independent living skills and homesickness; (7) college student life; (8) achieving academic success; (9) social-emotional skills; (10) financial aid services; and (11) internship and career services.

Objective. Raise awareness of support services for students with disabilities at college/university fairs and outreach events.

• Ensure all colleges/universities include disability services information at college fairs.

• Promote accessible and welcoming campus environments by including testimonials from students with learning disabilities in promotional materials.