In The Practice of Organizational Diagnosis Clayton Alderfer presents a new model for which to observe, study and diagnose organizational intergroup dynamics. Based on over 40 years of his own research and consulting, he merges the theory of embedded intergroup relations with the procedures of organizational diagnosis. The reader is presented with a detailed and thorough critique of conventional organizational diagnosis. Professor Alderfer then proposes his alternative paradigm by using embedded group relations theory to establish interdependencies between theory and method. He shows that such connections can improve the design of instruments and understanding by both academics and practitioners involved in organizational diagnosis. Professor Alderfer presents the five laws of embedded group relations from both a theoretical and empirical perspective. His recommendations for organizational diagnosis are based on embedded group relations theory along with a proposal for an approach to evaluate the ethical practice of organizational diagnosis.
The book is not meant for the faint of heart. It is a serious and comprehensive treatment of by one of the most regarded organizational behavior theorists. It is especially geared toward graduate students and theory-centered practitioners. The book is replete with theory, method, empirical studies and ethical considerations and standards. Professor Alderfer reframes established methodological approaches and offer specific procedures or methods for the entry, data gathering, analysis and feedback stages of organizational diagnosis. As a text for a graduate students and researchers or as a guide for theory-driven practitioners and consultants, The Practice of Organizational Diagnosis, provides a thorough and exacting treatment of the field of organizational diagnosis.
The book contains 16 chapters. In Chapter 1, the concept of a paradigm is discussed. The example of the Leyden Jar, drawing on the history of science and electricity, is used as a backdrop to serve as an analogy for the approach set forth in the book. Professor Alderfer devotes the rest of the chapter to examining current “social technologies” (methods) used in organizational diagnosis: participant observation, interpersonal interviews, focus groups, experiential learning methods and surveys. He shows that, for the most part, the focus of past literature has been on application of the various techniques, with limited discussion on the role of specific theories in informing the choice and use of “social technologies.” It is this chapter which introduces the theory-method connection.
Chapter 2 expands the previous chapter by examining issues through the intersection of four elements – theory, methods, data and values. Professor Alderfer demonstrates the dynamic nature of a theory-centered practice by showing that the four elements may each serve as independent sources of change; however, it is changes to theory which most dramatically alters how we develop new knowledge. Organizational diagnosis practice has been largely driven by methods as opposed to theory driven. He suggests the opposite is necessary.
In Chapter 3 Professor Alderfer reviews two seminal early organizational studies (The Bank Wiring Room at Hawthorne and the American Soldier during Second World War) which point to a tacit understanding of group and intergroup dynamics. However, there was no explicit use of this tacit understanding. The studies kept theory and methods separate, common to the thinking of that era, and thus contributed to the development of a method-driven perspective to organizational diagnosis without incorporating group and intergroup theory.
Chapter 4 – The contemporary status of organizational diagnosis – provides a detailed examination of four orientations to organizational diagnosis based on work by three experienced scholar practitioners (Levinson, Argyris and Schein) and the fourth from “method and model driven approaches.”
In Chapter 5, the author examines “anomalous results” from field research studies in which evidence of group-level organizational interventions failed because the researchers did not account for relevant intergroup dynamics. In addition the author explores unresolved theoretical and conceptual questions from basic research from various social science disciplines. He argues that these conceptual questions and anomalies call for better theory about group behavior and organizations.
In Chapter 6, Professor Alderfer explains the five laws of embedded intergroup relations theory as well as examples which demonstrate their application as an alternative theory for organizational diagnosis. The laws which stand on their own are also elements which depend on the others in the set. An appendix which is at the end of the chapter provides supplementary definitions and examples, and is as an invaluable aid for readers to understand key terms. In Chapter 7 each of the five laws of group and intergroup dynamics are examined individually against existing group-level theories. Similar conceptual positions as well as differences are identified.
Chapter 8 provides a very useful and interesting discussion of what “empirical support” may mean in evaluating the soundness of theory. The author examines various ways a set of findings provides support for a theory and extends his discussion to include investigators’ personal experiences. In Chapter 9, Professor Alderfer reviews findings from various social science disciplines with various theoretical orientations, and data obtained from using different methods to examine the empirical evidence for the five laws of group and intergroup dynamics and overall support for embedded intergroup relations theory.
The ethical practice of organizational diagnosis is addressed in Chapter 10. Professor Alderfer proposes an alternative approach to evaluate ethical practice based on the five laws of embedded intergroup theory. He provides an historical backdrop using examples from medicine and reviews several ethical propositions to serve as a baseline of current views along with their strengths and limitations. Professor Alderfer's alternative, although consistent with embedded intergroup relations theory, does not rely exclusively on this theory. He suggests that his principle survives even if theories change.
The next four chapters (11-14) shift focus toward implementation in that the author prescribes methods for the each phase of organizational diagnosis: the initial phase of diagnosis (Chapter 11), also referred to as organizational entry; data collection (Chapter 12); data analysis (Chapter 13); and lastly in Chapter 14 feedback and presentation of findings to the client. In Chapter 15, empirical results from examples of effective and ineffective outcomes for each of the four classes of methods described in the preceding chapters are reviewed in detail.
The book is concluded with the final chapter providing a discussion of five graduate courses which teach embedded group relations theory and prepare the student for practice as a consultant in organizational diagnosis or organizational psychology, notwithstanding a longer sequencing of courses aimed at the doctoral student providing opportunity for scholarship contributions. Common to all courses is experiential and didactic instruction as well as that the theory pertains to practitioners, scholars and clients alike. This chapter is essential for anyone interested in preparing for a consulting career in organizational diagnosis.
The Practice of Organizational Diagnosis is a comprehensive volume of theoretical and practical information essential for understanding contemporary issues in organizational diagnosis. It is useful for scholars, consultants, practitioners and graduate students and is a “must have” reference text for knowledge of the field. Professor Alderfer provides the reader with an outstanding and well-researched presentation of theories, scientific evidence, methods, ethics and implementation advice for the field of organizational diagnosis. However, his focus on theory and methods is applicable to wide range of research, especially in the social sciences, and much of his analysis of philosophers and methods can be extrapolated beyond organizational diagnosis. There is much in the book which I find useful for graduate students taking a research methods course and look forward to pointing them in this direction for relevant readings. It is refreshing to read a book which cannot be finished in a few hours and treats organizational diagnosis consulting with the level of sophistication it deserves. The book serves as a great text which will be read and re-read to fully digest the wealth of information and scholarship it contains. I highly recommend this book as an important and permanent addition to the library collection of faculty, graduate students and consultants.
