African feminism in the life of Mamphela Ramphele: a psychobiographic investigation

For decades, the study of leadership and feminism has evolved substantially in South Africa (SA), particularly in the post-apartheid era, with an increased interest in women within political movements and academia (Bayaga and Mtose, 2021; Chisholm, 2001; Geisler, 2000; Gouws, 2012; Mahabeer et al., 2018). The concept of leadership has yielded multiple definitions and descriptions (Collins et al., 2023); yet, its central role in shaping organisations and social contexts, providing direction during times of uncertainty, and influencing power has been recognised by numerous scholars (Atay and Ong, 2026; Kamil et al., 2025; Mills, 2005). Despite its prominence, leadership has been predominantly framed through bureaucratic principles (individual authority), while male figures remain largely in positions of power (Bunnell and Gardner-McTaggart, 2025; Denton and Vloeberghs, 2003; Eagly and Carli, 2004). Women are particularly marginalised in positions of authority that wield considerable influence over groups, resulting in a gender gap in leadership (Eagly and Carli, 2004). As such, feminist research emerged as a strategy to challenge these assumptions, providing valuable insights into how women operate within these contexts, often highlighting principles such as gender egalitarianism and the confrontation of traditionally male-dominated ideologies (Charles and Grusky, 2018; Hofstede, 2011; House et al., 2004). In today’s dynamic environment, the study of feminist leadership has prompted researchers to examine how women function within positions of power and “reimagine leadership from an indigenous perspective” (Fuller and Lashari, 2025, p. 1), motivating the pursuit of this study.

This study aims to describe, explore, analyse and understand Ramphele’s leadership development and is theoretically anchored in Oyěwùmí’s (1997, 2002) African feminism conceptual framework. Based on the arguments outlined above, the study objectives comprise two aspects: firstly, examining the leadership journey of a Black African leader through the lens of the selected feminist theory, and secondly, developing a leadership framework for Black African women leaders from a feminist theory perspective. Oyěwùmí’s theory serves as an ideal framework for understanding Ramphele’s leadership trajectory, given its underlying assumptions that capture the lived realities experienced by previously marginalised Black individuals. In addition, Ramphele’s life history serves as an example of how women leaders exercise power beyond patriarchal structures (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a, b), underscoring the significance of Oyěwùmí’s conceptualisation. Her life account offers a strong argument for psychobiographical research, as it encompasses a range of contrasting roles, each of which exemplifies a remarkable leadership development (Ramphele, 2013). Given the portrayal of her strategic qualities (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025b), the study seeks to role model behaviour to guide leadership development programs and inspire other women facing gender-related challenges.

By applying Oyěwùmí’s (1997, 2002) African feminism conceptual framework, this article challenges the existing male-centred ideologies in SA and diversifies psychological research through the focus of a Black female figure. Oyěwùmí’s work inspired numerous scholars, given her argument that gender is a Western cultural construct (Oyěwùmí, 1997). In cultures such as Yorùbá, being a man or woman is not the primary organising principle of social life (Bertolt, 2018; Oyěwùmí, 2002). Her stance remains fundamental in feminist research and ultimately presented an alternative way of conceptualising gender relations and worldview (Coetzee, 2017).

The adopted Oyěwùmí’s theoretical lens prevents misinterpretation of African feminine leadership through the application of improper gendered theories. African feminism is significant to the leadership literature as it moves away from the traditional understanding of women (Western theoretical grounding, i.e. liberal feminism) to incorporate social and contextually entrenched forms of leadership aspects. The absence of African feminism may result in research on leadership running the risk of extending Western feminist norms into the African context (Oyěwùmí, 1997, 2002), leading to incompatible strategies that fail to align with specific African realities.

Western feminism is a movement imported from European societies that advocates equality but largely framed through Eurocentric perspectives (Bayu, 2019). In contrast, African feminism applies an African lens to understanding feminism as a culture-bound and historically grounded perspective (Oyěwùmí, 1997). For example, Oyěwùmí’s African feminism theory implies that gender does not always operate as central to authority or power but rather several other important factors, such as seniority as defined by relative age, remain crucial (Bertolt, 2018). For many years, the concept of feminism has been linked to women’s liberation from patriarchal dominance within the SA context (Msila, 2021). Edwards (2018) asserts that feminists generally advocate for an equitable system to cultivate awareness and pursue cultural transformation. In spite of these developments, a research void persists in feminism across multiple fields of societal engagement, such as leadership, psychology and entrepreneurship (Kark and Buengeler, 2024; Lagrasta et al., 2024; Siegel et al., 2021; Soklaridis and López, 2014). Internationally, women’s political participation is strongly impacted by institutional and cultural variables, such as patriarchy, oppression, colonialism and sexism, often shaping their perception and political rights to participate in leadership (Nash et al., 2025). This assertion in SA highlights how African women’s leadership is inextricably linked to colonial struggles and cultural dynamics (Maqashalata, 2025).

Racial subordination and the domination of human existence in SA originated in colonial times but were exacerbated in 1948 when the National Party took power (Mafumbu et al., 2022). Haasstrup (2020) mentions that during apartheid SA, women were seldom treated equally with their male counterparts. These patriarchal circumstances, dating back to apartheid, have yielded significant implications and impact even in contemporary times (Haasstrup, 2020). Black leaders often receive unfavourable leadership performance ratings, are viewed as less effective, are under-represented in senior jobs, lack decision-making authority and are denied access to networks that could help them learn and grow (Mbatha, 2025). Despite the shift to post-apartheid SA, Black women remain misrepresented and subjected to everyday violence, necessitating studies to reveal these untold stories of Black women leaders (Grootboom, 2025; Mbatha, 2025; Roos, 2020).

In the context of psychobiographical research, more knowledge is needed on renowned African female leaders, whose personal narratives illuminate the complexities of feminism in leadership journeys (Mayer, 2022a, 2023a). Thus, conducting a psychobiography on a Black female figure through a selected African feminist framework contributes to the field of psychobiography and brings visibility to the life of Mamphela Ramphele, an iconic figure whose life developed amid patriarchal traditions (Ramphele, 1995, 1999, 2013). The study seeks to contribute to studies focusing on non-Western, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic (non-WEIRD) people (Mayer et al., 2023), thereby making efforts to promote inclusivity, gender balance and representation in both research and practice (Mayer, 2022b, 2023b; Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025b).

The concept of feminism is inherently complex, with diverse perspectives describing its origin. Over the years, researchers have defined its roots, often reflecting an absence of a fixed origin and a complex historical emergence (Ashique et al., 2024; Aziz and Sabri, 2023; Pande, 2018; Üstün and Süren, 2022). Okpokwalisi (2025, p. 2) argues that “the global export of Western feminist theories has often overshadowed the unique epistemologies, cultural frameworks and resistance strategies developed in other parts of the world.” Western feminism has historically focused mainly on White women, ignoring the broader scope of feminist concerns about gender injustice and race (Ashique et al., 2024). This oversight has potentially prompted African feminist discourses (Bayu, 2019; Oyěwùmí, 1997).

African feminism is a transformative movement aimed at achieving the freedom and liberation of African women from all forms of oppression (Mama, 2019). Western feminist theories (such as liberal feminism, socialist/Marxist feminism and psychoanalytic feminism) are rooted in Western norms and standards (Hawkesworth, 2012), inspiring African scholars to develop theories that speak to the experiences of African societies and embed these paradigms with colonial struggles (Oyěwùmí, 1997). In SA, most Indigenous cultures heavily relied on patriarchal ideologies (Lenser, 2019), necessitating more research on Black African leaders to understand how they navigated these power dynamics.

Oyěwùmí’s (1997, 2002) African feminism conceptual framework was used to describe, explore, analyse and understand Ramphele’s leadership development. Oyěwùmí’s framework takes an African lens on feminism, making it relevant to explore Ramphele’s life psychobiographically. Oyěwùmí (2002) asserts that gender is socially constructed and takes different forms across societies. Research further demonstrates that “Oyĕwùmí’s work can be used to strengthen and deepen African philosophical theorisations of relational subjectivity” (Coetzee, 2018, p. 1). Her argument was based on the concept of gender uniformity, which she describes as ignoring cultural diversity (Oyěwùmí, 1997). According to Oyěwùmí, the Western perspective of understanding gender disrupted Indigenous structures and knowledge (Byrne, 2020; Okpokwalisi, 2025).

Oyěwùmí (1997, p. xii) argued and challenged the following notions: (1) women’s subordination is a universal phenomenon experienced across societies; (2) the concept of “woman” is pre-cultural and often categorised as fixed and natural; (3) “there is an essential, universal category “woman” that is characterised by the social uniformity of its members”; (4) the universality and timelessness of gender divisions are embedded within societies throughout time and (5) gender functions as an organising principle in every society. Oyěwùmí’s critique stems from this universal logic, often overlooking African cultural beliefs. For Oyěwùmí, social organisation in African societies (e.g. the Yorùbá case) is not rooted in anatomical distinctions; instead, individual ranking was dependent on age-based seniority (Manicom, 2001; Oyěwùmí, 1997). For women, colonialism involved both gender subjugation and racial inferiorisation (Oyěwùmí, 1997). In today’s context, Oyěwùmí’s conceptualisation of feminism remains highly relevant, as it challenges feminist researchers and practitioners to decolonise and understand gender beyond Western ideologies (Oyěwùmí, 1997).

We employed a longitudinal, idiographic, single-case design (Freedman and Van Niekerk, 2023; Van Niekerk and Freedman, 2023). The longitudinal lens enabled the examination of Ramphele’s leadership across the lifespan and progress over several historical periods. Rather than presenting a chronological account of her lifespan development, the study examines the psychological life events that shaped her leadership journey from a feminist perspective. An exploratory research design was employed to understand the context in which Ramphele grew and to explore the varying depth of her experienced realities (Saka et al., 2023). The adoption of Oyěwùmí’s framework endorses a context-centred psychobiography, thereby moving beyond the Eurocentric view in studying African leadership development.

Psychobiographical accounts are inherently qualitative in nature (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025b; Van Niekerk, Prenter and Fouché, 2019), aiming to explore the individual social phenomena, emotions and underlying personal meanings (Rahi, 2017). Psychobiography is described as the application of scientific psychology to narrate individual lives and experiences (Mayer and Kovary, 2019). Mayer et al. (2023) maintain that psychobiography has gained international prominence and drawn considerable interest over the last four decades. In practical terms, the researchers analysed the subject’s non-numerical data, using a selected African feminist theory to derive an understanding of how she progressed her leadership journey.

The interpretative hermeneutic served as the foundational paradigm for this psychobiography (Mayer, 2023a, b). This philosophical grounding emphasises how meaning is constructed through text and that reality lies through language and human relations (McManus Holroyd, 2007; Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a). Therefore, it allowed the researchers to broadly obtain meaning through Ramphele’s textual information (i.e. autobiographies, biographies and published books) and interaction with others (i.e. documented interviews) to derive interpretations. To ensure this, we moved back and forth between different sources of information while comparing them to the broader life experiences.

The psychobiographers employed a purposive sampling technique (Van Niekerk, Prenter and Fouché, 2019), enabling them to exercise discretion in selecting the most suitable subject for the study (Van Niekerk, 2021). Tajik et al. (2024) conceptualised purposive sampling as the intentional selection of components, such as events, people or cases, according to their relevance to the study’s complex phenomena. Ramalepe and Mayer (2025a) further note that such a technique enables the inclusion and exclusion of information based on the study’s requirements. We chose Ramphele as a subject based on the following criteria: (1) her political leadership as a Black female figure; (2) her contribution to fighting against apartheid and her involvement in SA’s transition to democracy; (3) the extraordinary traits she possesses such as her transformational and strategic thinking and courageous and resilient outlook (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025b; Ramphele, 1999, 2013); (4) a call for psychobiographies to explore the lived experiences of non-WEIRD subjects (Mayer et al., 2023) and (5) having the potential to inspire and educate other women leaders through role-modelling who have experienced comparable gender-related challenges.

The data collection for this study is based on publicly available sources (Ponterotto et al., 2023), thereby using both primary and secondary data (du Plessis, 2017). The primary sources (first-person) comprise Ramphele’s autobiographical books (Ramphele, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2013, 2017) and her documented interviews (Deep Transformation Podcast, 2023). Conversely, the authors sourced her secondary materials (third-person) from existing biographies (Leib, 2015; Wolfe, 2023) and previous psychobiographical accounts (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a, b). The inclusion of several important data sources allowed for data triangulation, ensuring that interpretations remain supported across different sources. Schultz (2005) and Van Niekerk et al. (2019) proposed that psychobiographers are required to distinguish between salient and irrelevant data during data processing. To guide the extraction, we adopted the guidelines recommended by Alexander (1988, 1990). The first strategy involves allowing data to reveal itself, which entails sorting and selecting the subject’s biographical data for further analysis. Van Niekerk, Prenter and Fouché (2019) describe the second strategy as questioning the data, which involves using a theoretical framework to guide data extraction and categorisation.

To uncover the patterns of meaning in Ramphele’s leadership trajectory, we applied Braun and Clarke’s (2006) method of thematic analysis. The following six-phase guide was implemented and adhered to:

1. Familiarisation – Given that the researchers had previous experience with the subject’s autobiographical journey from earlier psychobiographical investigations (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a, b), additional readings of her works were conducted to obtain advanced knowledge of her multifaceted journey while developing a personal relationship with the data. Much attention was placed on identifying experiences in which Ramphele’s choices and leadership capabilities were challenged by cultural and gender norms.

2. Generating initial codes – While exploring her life history, interesting features, including turning points and the formation of her leadership journey, were identified across the entire dataset. Initial codes, such as witnessing her uncle’s arrest without a warrant, expulsion of her sister from school, early exposure to racial discrimination and political activism and having to navigate gender expectations from family and society, were identified and labelled. Oyěwùmí’s (1997) theoretical grounding informed what to look for during coding (i.e. realities related to gender, culture and patriarchy).

3. Searching for themes – Following the coding process, we then grouped the codes into possible themes. For example, observing her mother’s resistance to patriarchal norms, her defiance of the notion that sex predetermines social roles and her challenging of male-dominated activities were clustered together, as they reflected Ramphele’s socially constructed behaviour, shaped by her parents, for potential naming.

4. Reviewing themes – The identified themes were refined for coherence and relevance to align with Ramphele’s experiences and the objectives of the study.

5. Defining and naming – The researchers clarified the essence of each theme to reflect the challenges associated with women in leadership journeys while outlining Ramphele’s strategies to combat the injustices faced by women. For instance, the theme of parental modelling involves the combination of experiences the subject nurtured and ingrained from her family, particularly her mother’s assertive behaviours in challenging gender stereotypes.

6. Producing the report – The final stage involves writing up the psychobiography, crafting a cohesive narrative of Ramphele’s leadership journey from a feminist perspective. Most importantly, Ramphele’s lived experiences are organised chronologically from birth to the present in order to identify the early influences on her leadership and to allow for a developmental, coherent understanding. In doing so, Oyěwùmí’s framework is employed to critically interrogate the data.

The research procedure was informed by du Plessis’s (2017) steps to psychobiography, namely (1) subject selection (Mamphela Ramphele); (2) identification of both primary (e.g. Ramphele, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2013, 2017) and secondary data sources (e.g. Leib, 2015; Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a, 2025b); (3) identifying of the subject contextual data; (4) choosing a suitable psychological theory (Oyěwùmí 1997, 2002); (5) letting the data reveal itself; (6) questioning the data (using Oyěwùmí’s (1997; 2002) theoretical framework); (7) coding the data; (8) selection of display formats; (9) integrating coding and display; (10) writing up the psychobiography (by the first author); (11) revising the psychobiography (by the first and second author) and (12) evaluation of the research process. The inclusion of the research procedure was intended to maintain a transparent record and document how the psychobiography was carried out from start to finish.

To improve the quality of qualitative enquiries, researchers have made substantial efforts to adopt rigorous evaluative criteria (Cena et al., 2024). In qualitative research, trustworthiness is crucial to ensure the study’s confidence and quality in both the collection and reporting of data (Kakar et al., 2023; Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a). Guba’s (1981) criterion of trustworthiness was employed to ensure the study’s methodical rigour. The author recommended employing the following guiding principles: credibility, transferability, confirmability and dependability (Guba and Lincoln, 1982). Numerous strategies were implemented to strengthen the study’s trustworthiness, including peer debriefing, prolonged engagement with the data sources, triangulation to cross-check realities and maintaining a transparent record of the research process (trail audit). For example, upon completion of the psychobiography, the second author read and reacted to the study, providing expert knowledge and confirming the interpretation of the realities experienced by Ramphele. The researchers incorporated various data sources and published materials to enhance the depth of interpretation and validate realities. Furthermore, we spent a considerable amount of time reading and re-reading Ramphele’s life history to develop a deep contextual understanding of the data. These engagements contributed to solidifying the study’s trustworthiness and developing a nuanced understanding of the subject’s realities.

Psychobiographical research is inherently an “intrusive process” (Van Niekerk and Freedman, 2023, p. 39), necessitating strategies to preserve high ethical vigilance, particularly when the subject is still living (Ponterotto and Reynolds, 2019). This psychobiography follows Ponterotto and Reynolds’s (2017, 2019) best practices and legal considerations in psychobiography. Such considerations involved securing informed consent from the subject prior to the commencement of the study, exclusive reliance on publicly available sources (i.e. Ramphele, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2013, 2017), avoiding harm (i.e. from potential embarrassment and reputational damage) and handling her biographical information with respect and impartiality.

The study findings are structured chronologically, spanning Ramphele’s realities from birth to the present. Oyěwùmí’s (1997, 2002) African feminism conceptual framework was used to question and interrogate her life events, aiming to describe, explore, analyse and understand Ramphele’s leadership development.

Ramphele was born in the year (1947) in the Northern Transvaal and was raised as the third child of two primary school teachers, Pitsi Eliphaz Ramphele and Rangoato Rahab (Leib, 2015; Ramphele, 1995; Wolfe, 2023). Despite living through the colonial period of apartheid (characterised by racial segregation, land dispossession and economic exclusion) from a young age (Leib, 2015; Ramphele, 2013), Ramphele grew up in a family entrenched in patriarchal beliefs (Ramphele, 1995, 1996). As Oyěwùmí (1997) predicts, Ramphele evolved in a traditional family where patriarchal authority, status and respect were tied to age and seniority (Ramphele, 1999). Similarly, Ramphele (1999) asserts that her grandfather was a ruler and an authoritarian patriarch who controlled his descendants, as he existed before them. During this time, women occupied subservient roles, often characterised as mosadi ke tšhwene o lewa mabogo, meaning a woman’s worth is judged through her hard work and reproductive labour (such as cooking, washing, domestic chores, caring for others and raising children) (Ramphele, 1999). This finding indicates that biological sex was closely linked to social roles and power, thereby challenging Oyěwùmí’s (1997) view that sex and gender are different. In contrast to Yorùbá’s society, the human body was constituted as gendered and used as a basis for social ranking. During Ramphele’s time, being a man was associated with authority and power, whereas women were subjugated and controlled. This emphasises how historical leadership relied heavily on social beliefs rather than abilities and competencies.

Previous psychobiographies suggest that Ramphele’s mother defied these patriarchal injustices, laying a crucial foundation for Ramphele’s later leadership potential (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a, b), thereby supporting Oyěwùmí’s (2002) claims that “gender is socially constructed” and formed through socio-cultural practices (p. 2). Resisting these gender stereotypes as a woman aids Oyěwùmí’s (1997, 2002) critique that the concept of “woman” is not a universal phenomenon across cultures; rather, it is culturally bound. Although Oyěwùmí (1997) argues that the male gender is not inherently the privileged gender for Yorùbá society (not determined by the human body or sex), Ramphele’s life account demonstrates how males were traditionally perceived as the favoured gender in SA and assigned specific roles and responsibilities (i.e. rulers) (Ramphele, 2013). Historically, the Black African cultures in particular challenged the idea, as the society mostly operated like Western epistemologies that traditionally conflated sex and gender (Anderson, 2025). A few years back, in African cultures, one’s sex directly determined one’s social roles (Ramphele, 1995, 2013). African gendered systems advantaged men in leadership roles, education and access to particular employment opportunities while limiting women to responsibilities of subordination with lesser prospects (Ramphele, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2013). In fact, “African feminists presuppose that man is privileged with patriarchal dividends at woman’s expense” (Amaefula, 2021, p. 290). In SA, women needed not only an exercise of urgency but also had to navigate dual oppression, both racial and gender discrimination (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a).

Despite the system, Black women continuously challenged this male-dominated arrangement (view of sex and gender as binary), aiming to reimagine SA in a better outlook that considers women’s participation in all social roles (Mdlenleni et al., 2021). For example, rather than being submissive, Ramphele’s mother challenged the system, defying the notion that sex predetermines social roles and behaviours (Oyěwùmí, 1997). Her behaviour endorses Oyěwùmí’s (1997) claims that Western constructions are not universally accurate in the African context and that gender is culturally specific. Ramphele’s mother maintained the assumption that biological characteristics do not determine who and what people become (Leib, 2015; Ramphele, 2013), complementing Oyěwùmí’s (1997) key assumptions about Yorùbá society. This early observation from her mother likely nurtured an early model of urgency and courageous qualities, suggesting that with more effort, women can succeed despite an unjust system. The key insight for leadership development in SA organisations is that they should recognise the extraordinary role that family figures play in developing leaders for tomorrow.

Leib (2015) mentions that Ramphele “learned from her mother that a woman’s life did not have to be constrained by her gender” (p. 3). This courageous behaviour, instilled in her by her mother, combined with the defiant exposure, may have fostered an understanding that effective leadership is earned through action and responsibility, regardless of one’s gender, potentially inspiring her to develop strategies for societal emancipation. From a career development perspective, Ramphele’s self-efficacy was likely enhanced as a result of this experience. The key lesson for leadership development is that leadership potential is not limited by sex. Leadership behaviour can be learned and role-modelled from others, not necessarily a quality that is inherent in biology.

From a young age, Ramphele was immersed in political activism (Leib, 2015). Given her upbringing and family dynamics, one might argue that her mother’s influence and exposure to social struggles (i.e. her uncle’s arrest under the 90-day detention clause without a warrant of arrest and the expulsion of her sister from school) helped foster a conscious mind that enabled her to participate in political leadership (Leib, 2015). Her political participation as a woman supports Oyěwùmí’s (1997) argument regarding the category of a woman as being fixed and maintaining social uniformity. Since childhood, Ramphele has been prepared to ignore and challenge the submissive culture (Ramphele, 2013), enabling her to demonstrate traits that set her apart from most women. For leadership development, this finding advocates models that cater to individuals’ unique trajectories rather than a one-size-fits-all approach.

As a student leader alongside comrades such as Steve Biko, Ramphele co-founded the Black Consciousness Movement and fought against racial segregation (Leib, 2015; Ramphele, 2013). During this time, she pursued a degree in medicine (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a), a historically restricted career pathway, particularly for Black women. Ramphele states that “it was not the desire to serve which influenced my career choice, but the passion for freedom to be my own mistress in a society in which being Black and woman defined the boundaries within which one could legitimately operate” (Leib, 2015, p. 2). After interpreting her life psychobiographically, Ramalepe and Mayer (2025b) found that her decision to study medicine was a pragmatic choice that equipped her with the qualities necessary to lead SA’s emancipation. These remarks from Ramphele demonstrate that gender is not biologically fixed but rather socially constructed and embedded within one’s culture (Oyěwùmí, 1997), in her context, linked to racial injustice. Ramphele exercised self-determination, resilience and agency to break free from structural boundaries while pushing the movement as a student leader at the University of Natal (Ramphele, 1995, 2013). She emphasised self-liberation as a legitimate leadership driver. Leadership framed through personal empowerment has the potential to challenge dysfunctional systems and seek transformation when current structures are perceived as exclusionary. The data further highlight that education has the power to transform structural impediments into opportunities for leadership, build credibility and influence. The negotiation of patriarchal norms, anti-colonial resistance, and self-redefinition – enabled by education – facilitates a new understanding of leadership. It enables a rethinking of leadership as a contextually embedded and empowering process, as opposed to the traditional fixed set of competencies and roles. Ramphele’s pursuit of education served as a leadership resource, enabling her to redefine her persona beyond social constraints.

Growing up in SA as a Black woman, Ramphele remarks that she received no opportunities for development as a student activist because of the apartheid system (Ramphele, 1999). At the same time, they discouraged any public debate on political issues (Ramphele, 1999). However, Ramphele continued to show an adaptable passion by later assuming the role of chairperson of the South African Students’ Organisation (SASO) local committee (Ramphele, 1995, 2013). As a leader of SASO, she began to be vocal in meetings and became an aggressive debater while understanding the idiom of political discourse (Ramphele, 1999). In African cultures, these behaviours are traditionally associated with male leaders in patriarchal contexts (Oyěwùmí, 1997). Given that women in the modern environment can perform roles previously assigned to males and demonstrate masculine characteristics (i.e. aggressive, decisive and authoritative), it shows SA’s transition to align with Oyěwùmí’s (1997, 2002) critique that the concept of “gender” is not universal across contexts and that there is a distinction between sex and gender. By adopting characteristics typically associated with men, she reshaped the ideal of leadership for Black women within the repressive political and cultural structures of her time. The category of womanhood is now expanding and being redefined, as women can assume leadership positions, exhibit assertiveness and become rulers, thanks to the efforts of Ramphele and other comrades who fought against gender stereotypes (Leib, 2015; Ramphele, 2013, 2017).

In apartheid SA, the society experienced what Oyěwùmí (1997) regards as a rigid hierarchy organised from enslaved people to rulers at the top. As a result of this inequality, Biko and Ramphele continued to speak out against what they referred to as psychological oppression (Ramphele, 1999). Together, they pushed the struggle until Biko was exiled and banned from participating in political activities, leaving Ramphele to assume the directorship of the Black community programmes from Biko (Leib, 2015). Unfortunately, Ramphele faced her own banning orders in 1977 and was taken to Naphuno, Tzaneen – a form of social isolation and exile enforced by the state to silence political expressions. These life histories show how gender biases consistently kept on showing up to disrupt Ramphele’s leadership development. It supports Oyěwùmí’s (1997) critique that the concept of gender is uniform and automatically structured the same across societies. In leadership development, Ramphele’s experiences highlight that, even amid setbacks, individuals in positions of authority should always embody self-sameness. The passage highlights the importance of adaptability and resilience, essential skills for effective leadership, particularly in today’s world, in responding to uncertainty and changing circumstances.

Ramphele’s life trajectory represents a radical disruption of historical gender struggles. In 1991, she was appointed the University of Cape Town’s (UCT) Vice Chancellor (VC), making her the first Black person to lead the formerly white-dominated academic institution (Leib, 2015). This challenges Oyěwùmí’s (1997) claim that despite qualifications, seniority and merit, women remained subservient to men in all situations. Her strategic, courageous leadership, academic excellence and personal competence allowed her to exercise influence in a male-dominated environment as the VC. Ramphele dismantled historic boundaries and contributed positively to reimagining leadership beyond colonial legacies of marginalisation. Nevertheless, Ramphele faced numerous criticisms as a leader, including her decision to join UCT, as people perceived her as wanting to be controlled by the White minority (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a; Ramphele, 2013). Furthermore, she was criticised in 2013 for establishing the political party Agang SA while being part of the Democratic Alliance (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025a; Ramphele, 2017). These contribute to systematic challenges that often hinder the success of many Black women in positions of power. Her self-liberation move seems to have developed courage, resilience and internal empowerment, allowing her to inspire change in the face of criticism. Ramphele, even in her late adulthood, continues to transform numerous organisations through her transformational leadership (Ramalepe and Mayer, 2025b), demonstrating that women are equally capable of excelling as effective leaders.

Given Ramphele’s experiences, we designed a model that illustrates the female leader’s trajectory and shows especially the many challenges she had to overcome at specific points in time (1950–1960 and 1968–2013). The themes are derived from thematic analysis of Ramphele’s life history, which are categorised using three domains: (1) formative challenges (early-life challenges that shaped her leadership identity and political awakening), (2) later challenges (challenges she came across later when assuming leadership roles) and (3) navigating gender expectations (which clarifies a summary of strategies she adopted in defying systematic obstacles). Potential codes, such as, but not limited to, witnessing her uncle’s arrest without a warrant; expulsion of her sister from school; early exposure to the apartheid system, her patriarch grandfather; limited career opportunities (i.e. school); political activism and having to navigate gender expectations from family and society, were identified and labelled. Societal criticism and the assumption that she was controlled by white liberals, most importantly her mother’s resistance to patriarchal norms, her defiance of the notion that sex predetermines social roles and her challenging of male-dominated activities were clustered together, leading to the identification of the themes presented in the diagram.

Although colonial and apartheid powers influenced her life story and challenged her career, her ability to navigate the gendered challenges was outstanding. The model offers insight for other women leaders in similar contexts and presents Ramphele as a role model who challenges and overcomes socio-political, socio-cultural and socio-economic challenges during apartheid and post-apartheid times. Implicitly, it provides essential lessons for women leaders in African contexts, raising awareness of the enduring challenges they face while presenting Ramphele’s strategies to overcome gender expectations. Ramphele demonstrated extraordinary skills (i.e. courage and resilience) to navigate the unjust system, nurtured essential behavioural traits through her mother’s influence and used education as a strategic and intellectual means of empowerment. Figure 1 captures the gender challenges Ramphele, a Black SA woman, faced in her pursuit of leadership development and the strategic ways in which she navigated them.

Black women’s leadership trajectory is rarely linear; instead, it is context-specific and often develops amidst systematic obstacles, which are, at least in African contexts, influenced by colonial and imperialist powers. Thus, African feminist theories attempt to give women in African contexts a voice and make them visible in positions of authority within global contexts.

Through the application of Oyěwùmí’s (1997, 2002) African feminist framework to Ramphele’s life, the study’s findings reveal the presence of gender, structural and socio-cultural influences in her pursuit of leadership by navigating patriarchal systems, apartheid challenges, racial injustices, criticisms, career bias, banning orders and the lack of opportunities. Overcoming these gendered challenges, Ramphele drew on the socially constructed assertive behaviour from her mother, resilient demeanour, self-determination, adaptability, courage and the pursuit of education as strategic tools to overcome systemic influences, which were not in favour of Black women during and even past apartheid.

Ramphele’s life, viewed through the lens of African feminist theory, reveals how gender influences leadership within culturally specific contexts. Her ability to navigate leadership and become a successful woman leader is extraordinary, and she has become a role model for women not only in SA but throughout the continent and globally. It inspires women to rethink their roles in leadership and authority, giving them agency and offering insight into African concepts of women’s leadership for a Western audience.

The study applies Oyěwùmí’s (1997, 2002) conceptual framework to the life of a female leader in SA and thereby presents a new African role model anchored in Indigenous perspectives, providing insight into culture-specific contexts that are usually under-represented in Western leadership literature. It thereby contributes to enriching non-WEIRD studies in leadership while enhancing women’s leadership research in SA contexts, contributing to expanding under-represented cultural and gender research. In addition, the theoretical implications of this study include contributions to African feminist research in leadership using African feminist theory. Presenting an SA woman role model based on an in-depth qualitative study on her life and leadership development and the expansion of psychobiographical studies that enhance women’s leadership in African contexts, thereby contributing to non-WEIRD studies. Lastly, the leadership development model demonstrates how Black women’s leadership is not always linear but emerges through the negotiation of cultural, gendered and socio-political hindrances.

This psychobiographical study provides practical implications on different levels. Firstly, it serves as a practical role model for women in leadership and positions of power, authority and agency, offering courage and strength to overcome individual, organisational and societal challenges. It may offer insights into strategic approaches to leadership in male-dominated worlds. It has the potential to further increase awareness and consciousness among other women leaders about the resources women can use to overcome challenges and turn failure into success. It might also give hope for women’s empowerment and show that women’s leadership is possible despite colonial oppression and post-colonial and post-apartheid challenges. In the end, this study on a woman leader in SA provides transferable lessons, presenting leadership competencies (i.e. courageous behaviour and adaptability) that are supportive in overcoming gender barriers and envisioning women’s leadership based on African concepts for the 21st century.

Future research should focus on applying African feminist theories to gain a deeper understanding of women’s leadership perspectives within and beyond African leadership contexts. Further, these studies need to present insight into how African feminist theory and leadership research can contribute to Western leadership contexts and the leadership development of women leaders in other regions of the world. This is of interest since African feminist leadership theories have contributed little to Western leadership and theory development thus far.

Furthermore, psychobiographical studies should combine African and Western leadership theories to compare the differences and similarities they reveal in the analysis of African and Western women’s leadership and their lives. Additionally, more research on women in leadership is needed that combines qualitative and quantitative approaches, contributing to mixed-methods studies. Future studies, for example, could utilise the model presented in this study and test it empirically in SA, African and Western contexts by examining women leaders in cultural contexts and in international comparisons.

Women in leadership research needs to move beyond contemporary studies and increase its practical impact and implications. Therefore, more applied research is needed that provides role models and practical strategic insight into successful women’s leadership in culture-specific contexts and globally. Finally, this study is limited to a psychobiographical single-case study and cannot be generalised. It provides insight into women’s leadership in a very specific context and within a very specific time frame. However, its approach and insight may be transferable to other contexts, providing culture- and context-specific insights that offer new understandings and perspectives from women leaders in other parts of the world.

We thank the guest editors of this Special Issue, as well as the anonymous reviewers who supported us in developing our article. Thanks to the University of Johannesburg for supporting our research through Open Access Funding.