Teaching outside the box: the effects of flipped and jigsaw methods on ESL student performance in Saudi Arabia Open Access

The effectiveness of teaching methods in English as a Second Language (ESL) environments has been seriously questioned. In an ESL classroom, effective strategies are necessary to make students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds study together. Apart from the traditional strategy, other techniques have been used in enhancing the learning outcomes of students, including the flipped classroom and the jigsaw approach.

This research paper explores three distinct strategies: the traditional method, the flipped classroom and the jigsaw method. The traditional teaching method centers on the teacher, utilizing in-class lectures and limited technology to achieve minimal interactivity and assign collaborative tasks to the students. During classes, students engage with materials and complete assignments outside the classroom (Tularam, 2016). This model is a conventional teaching method commonly used in higher education ESL settings.

On the other hand, flipped classroom and jigsaw methods improve students' learning outcomes by encouraging active learning, peer interaction and developing better language ability among students (Ghorbanian, Mohammadhassani, Nasab, & Rajabi, 2024; Kvashnina & Martynko, 2016). The flipped classroom approach involves students studying fundamental concepts at home and engaging in active learning and problem-solving in class (Gustian, Aridah, & Rusmawaty, 2023; Sein-Echaluce, Fidalgo-Blanco, Balbín, & García-Peñalvo, 2024; Xiaoying & Samah, 2024). The jigsaw technique encourages peer-based learning through group work activities (Aisy, 2025; Jeppu, Kumar, & Sethi, 2023; Readi, 2024).

There is evidence showing that the application of technology in learning activities, engagement of learners in the learning processes and recognition of cultural differences remain very critical in ESL settings (Anjomshoaa, Ghazizadeh Hashemi, Jasim Alsadaji, Jasim Mohammed, & Masoudi, 2022; Musriza, Elismawati, & Al-Azmi, 2021; Wong, Lee, White, Efendie, & Lee, 2023). Moreover, the lecture delivery capacities of teachers and information and communication technology tools have a positive influence on levels of satisfaction among students (Hanaysha & Eli, 2024). Interactive teaching approaches such as role-playing, gamification and cooperative teaching practices can increase levels of engagement among students (Chopra et al., 2023; Ramesh, Azzah, Habiba, & Pauline, 2025; Riant et al., 2024) and task-based approaches can improve speaking abilities and fluency levels of learners (Huang & Wei, 2023; McLean, Attardi, Faden, & Goldszmidt, 2016; Vitta & Al-Hoorie, 2023). As colleges and universities moved toward more active learning, it became clear that more study was needed to help teachers understand how ready their students are for self-directed learning activities (Al-Amrani, 2024).

Despite the many research studies conducted to validate the effectiveness of flipped classroom strategies, jigsaw classroom strategies and traditional strategies of teaching in ESL classes, there is still a substantial gap left unfilled regarding this matter of research. These studies often examine these methods separately due to a focus on single-method research, studies that exclude Gulf countries or perception-based studies conducted by students rather than those assessing actual performance. This imbalance makes it difficult to determine their relative effectiveness under the same conditions. Although these methods appeared promising for development in education, student engagement and language skills acquisition, it has still not been determined which of these methods – flipped class, jigsaw class and traditional class teaching – is more effective in a Saudi Arabian setting for ESL learners. Hence, there remains a lack of empirical research that systematically compares flipped, jigsaw and traditional teaching methods within the same institutional and cultural setting. This research study fills this gap by being a performance-based comparison of these teaching methods in a Saudi Arabian tertiary education system. By employing an integrated assessment tool, this study has more effectively demonstrated the effectiveness of the teaching methods and provided stronger evidence regarding their impact compared to earlier works, as it has facilitated a discussion on ESL teaching.

The primary goal of this research investigation, therefore, is to explore the impact of the flipped classroom methodology and the jigsaw classroom methodology on student outcomes within the ESL environment when these two methodologies of instruction are compared with the traditional method of student instruction. Accordingly, the research questions guiding this study are:

ESL entails effective teaching approaches for handling the students, most of whom come from different languages and cultures. The growing global demand for individuals fluent in English means instructors are constantly trying various techniques to capture the attention of the learners and ensure that they understand the content. Among these strategies, the flipped classroom and the jigsaw method are particularly popular for their fresh and engaging approaches to the teaching and learning of ESL students (Ghorbanian et al., 2024; Kvashnina & Martynko, 2016).

Since flipped learning (FL) is a learning paradigm where the normal learning procedure in a class setting is turned around, permitting learners to study lessons at their own pace out of class (Wong et al., 2023), it has proven highly effective in an ESL setting (Galindo-Dominguez, 2021; Gopalan, Daughrity, & Hackmann, 2022; Sein-Echaluce et al., 2024). Based on Biggs' (2003) concept of constructive alignment, FL fits with a learning outcome approach where learners can pursue content in class in addition to carrying out class assignments in class following learning in class. This implies that while in class, learners would not be required to listen to a lecture but would perform class assignments based on content learned through assignments accomplished prior to class, such as a video, a piece of reading text or a podcast. There are significant benefits to this method of instruction in terms of motivation, performance and self-directed learning (Gustian et al., 2023; Xiaoying & Samah, 2024). According to Wong et al. (2023), the flipped classroom teaching style supports active learning because students actively engage with learning a particular subject and prepare prior to class for in-depth conversation, enhancing the critical thinking of students in class. However, close analysis of literature shows that all these positive observations are made in the context of studies being conducted on a certain skill, for instance, speaking or writing (Huang & Wei, 2023; Rahim & Wahi, 2023). Additional difficulties regarding self-regulation among students and technological accessibility are commonly pointed out but not always considered in other studies, thus exaggerating the universal effectiveness of the strategy (Anjomshoaa et al., 2022; Baig & Yadegaridehkordi, 2023).

A meta-analysis conducted by Shahnama, Ghonsooly, and Shirvan (2021) has been able to conclude that FL positively impacts the performance of ESL students, where additional exercises incorporated in pre-class materials make this impact more positive. Through the use of tools like Google Translate, which helps students comprehend the lesson before engaging in a discussion lesson, such an analysis proved the impact of FL on the performance of students in a positive way, especially when additional tasks are incorporated in the pre-class materials. By using resources such as Google Translate to aid understanding prior to participating in interactive class discussions, this approach will enable students to learn information more effectively. Depending on their level of learning and language comprehension, students can rewind, rewatch or reread any topic while they are comfortably seated outside of the classroom (El Miedany & El Miedany, 2019; Esmaeili, Tamjid, Sadeghi, & Seifoori, 2022).

Rahim and Wahi (2023) identified that the flipped classroom approach was of immense help for the lower proficiency students of ESL primary schools in developing their writing capacity successfully and establishing the efficiency of this method of teaching. It has been seen that students in high school who were taught in flipped classroom settings were better compared to students in regular classrooms, especially in speaking exercises. This finding shows how the flipped model can help improve vocabulary and fluency. In addition, when students come to the class, they often solve social tasks that require communication and problem-solving skills, which are crucial for ESL students. As a result, the classroom environment becomes an area for development where students can practice speaking and listening and other skill practices via instant feedback and directions given by the class instructor (Vitta & Al-Hoorie, 2023).

In addition, flipped classroom learning has been associated with several positive learning outcomes, such as improved academic performance, higher motivation and engagement, enhanced social interaction and reduced learning anxiety. According to a cognitive view, FL is congruent with the revised Bloom's taxonomy, which shifts lower-order learning tasks like remembering and understanding to a pre-class phase and reserves class time for higher-order activities such as application, analysis and problem-solving. However, not all empirical findings are consistent. Some scholars observe notable learning outcomes, while others observe modest learning outcomes with respect to achievement, sometimes coupled with decreased student satisfaction if students are poorly prepared for self-directed learning. This finding indicates that flipped classroom design is highly dependent on design characteristics. However, there are numerous issues associated with a flipped classroom design for both teachers and learners. The flipped classroom design can pose numerous learning obstacles. For example, teachers (needing more preparation, having trouble managing students' pre-class activities), students (lack of willingness to attend the pre-recorded video lectures) and technical difficulties (technological and internet access issues) (Anjomshoaa et al., 2022; Baig & Yadegaridehkordi, 2023; Subiyantoro, 2023). Moreover, it presents challenges with the need for careful instructional design, technology access and student readiness for self-directed learning. Accordingly, the manner in which it will be delivered must also be given considerable thought in the context of the courses and composition of students being taught (Wong et al., 2023). The inclusion of engaging tools such as Padlet for class discussions within the context of flipped classes will further add to the involvement of the participants. Research has confirmed that this makes for an engaging environment that leads to efficient comprehension of the subject matter being taught (Jeong & González-Gómez, 2021).

Although the flipped classroom is considered very positive in terms of learning achievements, the existing literature indicates several limitations. This is particularly true because many studies rely on limited instructional time or self-perception rather than actual performance achievements (Shahnama et al., 2021; Vitta & Al-Hoorie, 2023). Apart from this, the FL model also depends on the level of proficiency in language and on how the design and support are being provided to the learners. These differences between studies point to the necessity for controlled comparison research in settings involving ESL.

The jigsaw method is a teaching method where students are grouped, and each member learns different aspects of a given topic. Chickering and Gamson (1987) emphasized practice standards in undergraduate education. Since the jigsaw approach is aligned with fostering a student collaborative approach to active learning, it is easy to understand why the jigsaw approach would be helpful to them. The jigsaw method was recognized as effective in enhancing comprehension through approaches to cooperative learning (Chopra et al., 2023; Readi, 2024; Riant et al., 2024). For example, in ESL education, it satisfies both procedural and communicative competences, because one has to understand a portion of the learning content that one needs to teach others (Aisy, 2025; Jeppu et al., 2023). A study by Isgiarno, Cahyono and Rahmaningtyas (2020) found that collaborative learning strategies like the jigsaw method significantly improve reading and writing skills among ESL students by encouraging peer interaction and cooperative learning. On this aspect, a study undertaken by Apriani (2017) and another conducted by Nurbianta and Dahlia (2018) indicated the effectiveness of undertaking a jigsaw in improving reading and writing abilities in ELS students. Both studies indicated that ELS students who engaged in jigsaw puzzles showed better academic performance and engagement compared to those who were taught using conventional teaching methods.

Furthermore, the biggest advantage of the jigsaw method is that it encourages and accommodates active listening and peer teaching. Since each student provides necessary information to share with the rest of the group members, the student has to understand their material and explain it, which is an important aspect of language acquisition (Jeppu et al., 2023; Naibaho & Manik, 2023). For ESL students, the teaching-learning process not only allows them to review what they have learned but also increases their confidence in using the English language for communication (Musriza et al., 2021; Susanti & Subekti, 2020). The jigsaw method also encourages group work, which, in the process, creates a collaborative setting in the classroom whereby the students depend on each other to accomplish a task. This mutual dependence makes the students listen to one another and respond in English to their colleagues, thus improving the students' speaking and listening skills. In a medical education context, Kumar, Kalasuramath, Reddy and Reddy (2023) found the cognitive skills of medical and nursing students using the jigsaw strategy, an indication that the instruction method can be spread out from language learning to other fields. This study also established that students preferred the jigsaw strategy over and above traditional tutorials, proving that the approach is another possible way learning can be enhanced.

Maintaining group cohesion and individual responsibility is a crucial factor for the success of jigsaw activities (Paliling, Tandililing, & Panjaitan, 2024; Aziza et al., 2024). A key issue regarding the use of jigsaws in a class may depend on optimal class dynamics. If students in a class are not well-prepared to be cooperative in class, it can be a problem with using jigsaws effectively in class. Moreover, it can take students in a class longer to adjust to class dynamics while using jigsaws than in flipped class techniques (Goolsarran, Hamo, & Lu, 2020; Calkins & Rivnay, 2022).

Further, earlier reviews show a more mixed picture regarding the effectiveness of the jigsaw method in relation to quantifiable learning outcomes. Several studies have suggested that the effectiveness of the jigsaw technique depends significantly on group dynamics, accountability and instructional time (Aziza et al., 2024; Paliling et al., 2024). The requirements for implementing the jigsaw technique may add further complexity when considering the language and cognitive demands of the ESL classroom, as well as the available instructional time. The jigsaw technique could add further complexity when considering the language and cognitive demands of the ESL classroom and the instructional time available. Furthermore, the current review of the strategy primarily focuses on engagement and attitudes, rather than conducting a comparative analysis with other instructional strategies (Chopra et al., 2023; Riant et al., 2024). The available literature provides useful insights concerning the flipped and jigsaw teaching methods in ESL education; however, evidence is fragmented, demonstrating mixed findings and relying on perception-based outcomes (Shahnama et al., 2021; Vitta & Al-Hoorie, 2023). Very few empirical studies have compared flipped, jigsaw and traditional teaching methods under the same conditions using one assessment framework. This serves to address the most important gap in the literature and gives a reason for this research.

From the above literature on the flipped and jigsaw teaching techniques, we can construe the following hypotheses for this research in the ESL context, particularly in Saudi Arabia.

This study draws on three key theories to explore effective teaching approaches in ESL settings. The Input Hypothesis underpins traditional teaching, Sociocultural Theory informs the jigsaw method, and Cognitive Load Theory guides flipped classrooms.

In traditional classroom settings, teacher-centered instruction promotes controlled and organized learning. The approach was compatible with Krashen's input hypothesis theory. The approach emphasized the significance of comprehensible input in acquiring languages. However, autonomy and interaction opportunities remain low compared to the flipped and jigsaw approaches.

Sociocultural theory by Vygotsky asserts that by doing things together, having conversations and collaborating or looking out for each other, people learn best. This is accomplished by doing it the jigsaw way, where students and teachers work together, take or have charge of something and teach others, all while building on their zone of proximal development.

The flipped classroom approach is supported by cognitive load theory, which posits that learning is optimized when instructional design minimizes unnecessary cognitive burden on working memory. Students engage in content before class at their own pace. This relaxes the cognitive overload during in-class activities, where the focus is on application and problem-solving.

These theories explain the justification for the observed differences in performance for the different groups. Both the flipped and the jigsaw classroom approaches the active classroom experience based on principles that could improve the outcomes for the ESL group.

A non-equivalent control group quasi-experimental design was employed in this study. It compares existing groups (flipped, jigsaw and traditional) in a real-world educational setting. Although these groups were not assigned on a random basis, they were similar in nature by course type, academic level and college that the students were attending. This is an appropriate approach because it would be impractical to randomly assign the groups; it gives the opportunity to compare different teaching methods regarding their effects on already existing ESL student groups, which raises its external validity (Hirose & Creswell, 2023).

This study used a convenience sample of 380 undergraduate students from the College of Business Administration (COBA) at Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University (PMU), Saudi Arabia. All the participating students were non-native English speakers enrolled in the Management Information System (MIS) course, where the medium of instruction was English. The sample size per group (flipped: n = 101, jigsaw: n = 93, traditional: n = 186) was determined by the existing class enrollment as shown in Table 1 below.

The unequal group sizes reflect authentic classroom distributions and enhance ecological validity. The groups were deemed comparable, as every student was enrolled in the same course at the same academic level and in the same college. Using one of the three designated teaching methods, each group received a week-long educational intervention covering the same contents of the course. The one-week intervention was selected to allow controlled comparison while minimizing cumulative instructor or content bias across teaching conditions.

The flipped classroom method involved students accessing pre-recorded lectures and materials from the Padlet platform online, followed by interactive discussions and activities in class. Following the online questioning and answering phase, the students presented their work to their peers in a face-to-face classroom setting.

Similarly, for the jigsaw method, we employed a six-step procedure.

1. The instructor divided the students into heterogeneous groups (jigsaw groups) of equal size comprising students with diverse backgrounds, as illustrated in Figure 1. For example, the instructor divided a class of 25 students into 5 groups, with each group comprising 5 students. In cases where equal division was not possible due to the odd number of students, some groups accommodated six students.

2. The instructor divided the course into five equal parts so that all groups had an equal number of students. Each group member was assigned a specific chunk of material with identical content to the corresponding member across all groups. For example, the same material was assigned to Student 1 in each group, and similarly, the same material was assigned to Student 2 across all the groups. Two students in groups of six received the same material. Each student, in their jigsaw group, read the material independently; they took notes without sharing or discussing it with the other group members.

3. The instructor assigned each student within the jigsaw group a different chunk of content to be an expert on. Each student was responsible for learning his or her content, which they then taught to their fellow group members. Students were to do this stage independently: read and take notes on assigned content alone and not with other group members.

4. Following 15 minutes of independent reading, the students from all groups who shared the same chunk of content convened to form expert groups, as illustrated in Figure 2. This meant that students who had read and prepared the same material for their respective jigsaw groups came together, recognizing each other as experts on the topic. For instance, Student 1 from each of the five jigsaw groups formed one expert group; students collaborated, comparing their ideas and working together to prepare a comprehensive presentation to share with their original jigsaw groups. This process enables students to bridge knowledge gaps, clarify misconceptions and reinforce key concepts, thereby solidifying their understanding of the material.

5. At this stage of the process, students in expert groups shared their assigned material with their peers. Each expert took individual turns sharing their specific chunk of information as the peer listened, took notes and asked questions for clarification of ideas. In this process, when each expert shared, others learned from the peer's presentation, and they collectively created an overall understanding of the entire topic.

6. Once material was shared and discussed among expert groups, students then went back to their original jigsaw groups and shared the expertise among peers. At this last sharing stage, each student expert shared knowledge with the other group members who had not been part of their respective expert groups. In this way, all group members received a comprehensive overview of all the topics. Each student in each jigsaw group gained an overall understanding of the whole subject matter due to the wealth of input from peers.

The class instructor collected data through a 15-min quiz administered immediately after the instructional period. The same quiz was conducted in parallel in all sections at the same time to avoid bias. While a longer quiz might provide more insight, this brief length was sufficient to compare results across the groups as an indicator of comprehension, application and analysis for key concepts, such as describing MIS components and justifying its business value. The quiz contained ten multiple-choice questions (1 point each) and two short-answer questions (0–3 points each) targeted to the course learning objectives. A scoring rubric was used to assure consistent grading (total score 16 points). The research adhered to PMU's research ethics guidelines, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity.

Data analysis was carried out using IBM SPSS (version 20). A one-way ANOVA compared the mean quiz scores of groups that went through the flipped, jigsaw and traditional approaches. Testing the difference between two scores is considered to be statistically significant when the significance level equals or is below 0.05 (Pallant, 2020). Effect size is calculated by the formula eta squared = sum of squares between groups/total sum of squares and using the following thresholds: 0.01 = small effect; 0.06 = medium effect; 0.14 = large effect. Since group sizes are not equal and Levene's test was statistically significant (p < 0.05), the robust Welch ANOVA F-statistic is reported as well as the standard ANOVA. Levene's test of equality of variance was employed to check the assumption of ANOVA. Moreover, the post-hoc test will be employed in the pairwise comparisons following the guidelines suitable for unequal variance and unequal group sizes. These tests are suitable for this research to compare the mean scores of more than two different participant groups on a continuous variable to determine if there is a significant difference between the groups and within the groups (Pallant, 2020).

To ensure the accuracy of the quantitative analysis, this research addressed internal validity, content validity, construct validity and reliability. Using the quasi-experimental design, internal validity was enhanced by using three parallel groups (flipped, jigsaw and traditional) for a one-week intervention to control for students' adaptation over time and their learning progression. Construct validity was ensured by using established definitions from the literature to accurately represent the corresponding construct under investigation. To ensure content validity, the course instructor developed the quiz, shared it with other peer instructors who taught the same course to gather feedback on alignment with the course learning objectives and taught the content. A scoring rubric for the short-answer questions increased grading consistency. The quiz reached a Cronbach's alpha of 0.76, which is considered acceptable reliability for a topic-focused assessment (Pallant, 2020).

After analyzing the quiz scores using SPSS, the assumption of homogeneity of variance was violated, as indicated by a significant Levene's test (p = 0.000 < 0.05) (Pallant, 2020), as shown in Table 2 below.

Given the violated assumption, we proceeded with the ANOVA test due to its robustness. The one-way ANOVA revealed a statistically significant difference in student performance among the three teaching methods (flipped, jigsaw and traditional) (F = 17.679, p = 0.000 < 0.05), as shown in Table 3 below.

The effect size was calculated using eta squared: Eta squared = Sum of squares between groups/total sum of squares = 135.769/1583.389 = 0.086, indicating a medium effect size. This confirms that there is a significant difference in the mean scores of at least one pair of groups. However, this measurement does not show which group is different from which other group. Therefore, we conducted a post-hoc test, as shown in Table 4 below, to make a pairwise comparison of the three teaching methods to know which method is different from which other teaching method.

The post-hoc comparisons show that the mean score for the flipped group (M = 8.92) was significantly higher than that for both the jigsaw group (M = 7.96, p = 0.002 < 0.05) and the traditional group (M = 7.48, p = 0.000 < 0.05). In contrast, the difference between the jigsaw and traditional groups was not statistically significant (p = 0.135 > 0.05).

The findings verify H1 and H2 hypotheses, as both the traditional and jigsaw classes showed a significant drop compared to the flipping class. This confirms that using the flipped class approach resulted in significantly higher performance and achievement compared to both traditional and jigsaw classes for ESL students. This also confirms that using such an approach likely contributed to better learning for these students by engaging them to learn at their own preferred speed and convenience on the online Padlet site for translating, learning from different sources and autonomy for learning by these students. However, H3 was not supported, as no significant difference was found between jigsaw and traditional performance and achievement for these students. The most important and interesting finding is that there is no meaningful difference between the jigsaw and traditional classes (P = 0.135 > 0.05). This likely means that the inflexible jigsaw method used over a short period of time was not as good as the students' collaborative, cognitive and social abilities would suggest, which is what Vygotsky's sociocultural theory says, as discussed above.

At the same time, innovative and effective approaches to managing cognitive loads by implementing autonomy to learn and increasing students' independence could be as effective as cognitive load theories in managing these loads and different educational procedures and practices by aligning with these theories. However, on the other hand, excessive and significant loads and pressures, due to complex and strong dependency on social collaborative potentials and translation for these students' needs, could not be as effective as expected on different cognitive and educational aspects, as proposed by these theories, as discussed earlier.

Both the flipped and jigsaw techniques aim to promote active learning. Nevertheless, the results of the study indicate that these techniques fail to provide equal benefits in the context of ESL learning. The flipped classroom technique suits the repetition requirement of ESL learners. It also reduces linguistic pressure. In contrast, the jigsaw method places immediate communicative and cognitive demands on students. Although the flipped classroom and the jigsaw method both stimulate active learning among the students, their implementations are not the same.

The results in the previous section indicate that there is a statistically significant difference among the mean scores of the three teaching types. The flipped method has a significantly higher mean score (M = 8.92) compared to both the jigsaw (M = 7.48) and traditional (M = 7.96) teaching methods. The effect size (eta squared = 0.086) indicates a medium effect of teaching type on the outcome variable. However, the jigsaw and traditional groups do not significantly differ from each other. Although the flipped classroom and the jigsaw method both stimulate active learning among the students, their implementations are not the same. The flipped classroom provides more freedom and the ability to study at one's own pace; this approach is especially advantageous when some students require a longer time to understand the material. On the other hand, the jigsaw method focuses on groups and peer learning, thus putting students in a position where they can only progress if they share information and ideas (Jung, Park, Kim, & Park, 2022). For ESL learners, these methods can be used sequentially; the flipped classroom structure presents the learners with the information required to engage in the jigsaw technique, while the jigsaw technique introduces opportunities for applying that information, such as group discussions. Both of the mentioned approaches reflect a shift from teacher-dominated instruction to student-centered learning. Such a shift supports language development by emphasizing interaction, mediation and active engagement (Julia et al., 2020). The ease of teachers constructing useful classrooms with engaging stimulants not only improves the learning of the ESL students but also fulfills the teacher's responsibility.

According to the study's findings, the flipped classroom strategy resulted in higher short-term performance scores in the Intro to MIS course compared with the jigsaw and traditional approaches. It should be noted that these findings reflect short-term learning outcomes measured through a brief assessment and should therefore be interpreted as indicative of immediate understanding rather than overall course achievement. These observations are consistent with Krashen's input hypothesis and cognitive load theory. Through prior preparation for class, the flipped classroom is expected to increase intrinsic motivational levels as well as class organization.

The flipped classroom is beneficial for ESL English learners because of some fundamental characteristics:

1. Pacing and flexibility: The flipped classroom is a student-paced method of learning that enables individuals to learn according to their pace; this feature is essential for English language learners who might need more time to learn (Julia et al., 2020; Swargiary, 2024). They might need more reviews of any particular task or topic (Altemueller & Lindquist, 2017).

2. Interactive learning environment: The flipped classroom model changes the traditional learning environment by allowing active learning and participant engagement through activities such as interaction, problem-solving activities and instant feedback. Through active learning and interaction, English language learners have opportunities to implement what has been learned and hence are able to develop language skills (Mok, 2014).

3. Increased language exposure: English language learners gain significant language exposure by implementing multimedia resources involved in flipped classrooms; such exposure fosters the development of language-learning skills, such as comprehension of language (McLean et al., 2016). English learners also gain more opportunities for active learning by engaging in speaking and listening activities during participatory learning (McLean et al., 2016).

4. Personalized learning: To cater to the special language-learning needs that ESL students have, personalization through the flip system makes it possible to provide individualized attention during class (DeMoss, 2024; Wanner & Palmer, 2015). The trainer is better positioned to provide individualized training to his students.

5. Enhanced engagement/motivation: Engagement and motivation levels increase due to the interactive nature of the knowledge that students experience through the flipped class concept. Students start experiencing enjoyable levels of knowledge acquisition, which in turn enhances academic performance (Lopes et al., 2019; Raju & Shailaja, 2024).

English in Saudi Arabia is used for educational purposes and has no link with social interactions. Instructional approaches that allow private rehearsal and repeated exposure may therefore be particularly effective. The flipped classroom provides such affordances, whereas the jigsaw method requires immediate peer explanation and spontaneous language production. This contextual factor can account for why the jigsaw technique failed to show significant superiority over traditional teaching in the current study.

However, in this study, the flipped classroom outperformed the jigsaw method, despite its effectiveness in fostering cooperative learning and improving understanding. The study's findings also revealed that the jigsaw method was not more effective than traditional teaching methods. The jigsaw approach demands the students' cooperative working and communicational skills. Such a demand is difficult to put into action in the short instructional phase, especially among ESL students. This finding aligns with Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. This suggests that limited language proficiency may constrain the effectiveness of peer-mediated learning. In the ESL context, it is evident that the language barrier, short class duration and group dynamics affect the students' performance. Despite these advantages, the findings show that the flipped classroom improved students' performance more than both the jigsaw and traditional teaching methods. Hence, it contributes to the self-determination theory, where students are more motivated in FL than in jigsaw and traditional learning.

The outcomes from this study have significant practical applications in ESL education in higher institution settings. The effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy points to the viability of well-designed combined pre-classroom and in-class learning to increase flexibility in learning.

Moreover, an instructor can harness the strategy from the blended strategy in ELS classrooms. Nonetheless, there would have to be appropriate institutional support for the instructor to enjoy the benefits of the creation of pre-classroom learning materials. Moreover, policymakers in education would have to consider factors that limit their experience in implementing ESL teaching strategies. The experiment revealed that various factors could affect strategy effectiveness (e.g. the jigsaw strategy). Thus, caution is needed when using teaching strategies in an ESL environment.

This study has several limitations that affect its applicability. First, the short-term intervention may not reflect long-term sustainable learning outcomes. Secondly, the single setting context limits generalizability to other ESL settings. Thirdly, the jigsaw method's effectiveness depends on individual students' linguistic competences, which are not directly measured in this study.

Future studies should conduct longitudinal research to assess long-term strategy outcomes and explore qualitative approaches integrating these strategies. For ESL programs, mixed approaches yield varying outcomes, so consider covering the above attributes when choosing strategies.

This study relied exclusively on quantitative data. With the quasi-experimental approach used, flipped, jigsaw and traditional methods were compared in the ESL setting, focusing on students' performance. The results indicated that the flipped method had a significantly higher mean score (M = 8.92) compared with both jigsaw (M = 7.96) and traditional (M = 7.48) teaching methods. On the other hand, no statistically significant difference was found in performance between the jigsaw and traditional methods. The jigsaw method did outperform the traditional approach in short-term ESL settings due to language proficiency demands, group dynamics and the short instructional timeframe in the Gulf region ESL context.

Because of the short-term nature of this study and the group-based approach of the jigsaw method, longitudinal research is recommended to assess knowledge retention and group dynamics impact. Using hybrid learning and leveraging artificial intelligence tools could optimize ESL students' learning efficiency in the Gulf region.

This study was conducted in accordance with the research ethics guidelines of PMU Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), ensuring the protection of human subjects, informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity. The research protocol was approved by the Ethical Committee of PMU (Ref: PMU.K.55.01.05/25, Jan 27, 2025). Informed consent was obtained from participating students, and measures were taken to maintain confidentiality and anonymity throughout the study. All collected data were kept confidential and used solely for the research purposes.