An analysis of market concentration and efficiency in Vietnam's container ports Open Access

Containerization revolutionized global shipping and reshaped the dynamics of international trade and supply chain operations (Cooper and Levinson, 2006). Serving as critical nodes in the global logistics network, container ports facilitate the movement of goods and influence the spatial patterns of maritime connectivity and trade flows. The increasing volume of containerized trade has emphasized the importance of port hierarchies in illustrating regionalization and globalization trends. Container throughput worldwide experienced significant shifts in market share, reflecting the evolving dynamics of the global port system within a broader international framework (Nguyen and Kim, 2024). The significance of international maritime transportation is undeniable, accounting for over 85% of global commodity trade (UNCTAD, 2023). This highlights the pivotal role of shipping in connecting economies and enabling the smooth flow of goods across regions. In 2021, the volume of global seaborne trade reached approximately 10,985 million tons, with containerized cargo contributing significantly at an estimated 849 million 20-foot equivalent units (TEUs) (UNCTAD, 2022). These figures underscore the reliance of international trade on efficient maritime logistics and the critical function of container ports in sustaining the global economy.

Research on port hierarchy and market concentration has become a vital area of study, focusing on various geographical and temporal scales. Studies on individual ports often explore throughput, efficiency and competitive dynamics (Gouvernal et al., 2005), while regional studies examine mobility and market (de)concentration across systems (Notteboom, 1997, 2010). These studies highlight that while dominant ports often consolidate their positions, smaller ports may challenge this dominance during periods of disruption or systemic change, resulting in dynamic shifts within port hierarchies.

External risks, such as economic crises, geopolitical tensions and global disruptions like the COVID-19 pandemic, have coincided with significant changes in maritime port systems worldwide (Guerrero et al., 2022; Narasimha et al., 2021). These risks disrupt global supply chains by causing shifts in trade volumes, altering shipping routes and straining port operations. For example, during the pandemic, ports faced significant challenges, including congestion, labor shortages, logistical bottlenecks and increased environmental pollution due to prolonged vessel waiting times and inefficient cargo handling operations (Gu and Liu, 2023; Gu et al., 2023). These disruptions redefined port hierarchies and market shares globally. In Vietnam, the pandemic revealed the fragility of the port system but also coincided with innovations aimed at enhancing resilience and efficiency. Strategic ports like Hai Phong and Cai Mep adapted to fluctuating demand, intensified regional competition and shifting trade patterns, showcasing the dual challenge of navigating risks while leveraging new opportunities. This dual effect highlights the need for adaptive strategies and robust operational frameworks to ensure the competitiveness and sustainability of Vietnam's maritime sector in a volatile global environment.

Vietnam is recognized as one of the most dynamic economies globally, characterized by consistently high and steady gross domestic product growth (Vu and Nguyen, 2024). The country's ongoing economic reforms and favorable business environment make it an attractive destination for foreign investment, particularly in the port industry. With over 3,260 km of coastline, Vietnam's port system includes major ports such as Tan Cang Cai Mep, Hai Phong and Da Nang, alongside smaller ports spanning its North, Central and South regions. Vietnam's strategic location in Southeast Asia positions its ports as key transit points for goods moving between Asia, Europe and other regions (Pham et al., 2016). These geographical and economic advantages have driven Vietnam's port system to play a crucial role in connecting international and domestic trade. In recent years, the volume of cargo handled by Vietnamese ports has shown significant growth, reflecting increased trade activity and infrastructure development (Figure 1). However, recent disruptions, including the COVID-19 pandemic, have brought both challenges and opportunities to Vietnam's maritime port industry.

In recent years, Vietnam's container port market has exhibited dynamic transformations shaped by rapid trade expansion, regional competition and evolving supply chain configurations. The dominance of a few traditional gateway ports, notably Tan Cang Cai Mep and Hai Phong, has gradually declined as medium-sized and smaller ports across the Central and Southern regions have captured a growing share of container throughput. This diversification reflects a gradual shift from a highly concentrated structure toward a more balanced and competitive network. Concurrently, the emergence of new logistics corridors and increased integration into Southeast Asian maritime networks have reinforced inter-port competition and encouraged strategic investment in port infrastructure and digital operation (Nguyen et al., 2020). These developments underscore the importance of analyzing Vietnam's container port market dynamics to understand how structural changes in hierarchy and market share interact with broader patterns of competitiveness and resilience within the global maritime system.

This study focuses on Vietnam's container ports, a rapidly developing system marked by mobility in rankings and shifts in market concentration. Using data on container throughput and port rankings from 2014 to 2023, it examines structural changes in port hierarchy and market share across the North, Central and South regions. Statistical measures, including the Gini coefficient, Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) and rank mobility indices, provide insights into the competitive dynamics of Vietnam's ports. The study investigates how external shocks, such as economic fluctuations and systemic disruptions, correspond to changes in market concentration and port hierarchy. Additionally, it explores whether shifts in market share correlate with operational efficiency, offering policy recommendations to enhance resilience and competitiveness in a globalized maritime sector.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a literature review, focusing on the observed changes before and after external shocks, including COVID-19, in container port systems and reviews relevant studies on Vietnam's ports. Section 3 describes the methods used, including shift-share analysis, concentration measures and the super data envelopment analysis (DEA) model, alongside the data utilized. Section 4 presents the results, analyzing the dynamics of market share changes across the pre- and post-COVID-19 periods and the relationship between market share dynamics and operational efficiency. Section 5 concludes with policy recommendations and discusses the limitations of the study.

Understanding the dynamics of port hierarchy and mobility is essential for analyzing the evolution of maritime trade systems and the competitive positioning of ports (González Laxe et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2018). Previous research has highlighted the “challenge of the periphery” phenomenon, suggesting that smaller ports can rise to challenge the dominance of larger, established hubs during periods of systemic disruption or market changes (Hayuth, 1981; Slack and Wang, 2002). This theory has been widely applied to study shifts in port rankings, market concentration and trade connectivity, emphasizing the factors that drive structural transformations in port systems. These concepts are particularly relevant in today's context, where global disruptions like the COVID-19 pandemic have accelerated changes in port hierarchies. By integrating this theoretical foundation, the current study examines how Vietnam's container port system reflects these dynamics under external shocks, contributing to a broader understanding of the interplay between market concentration and port mobility.

While these foundational studies have laid important theoretical groundwork, they differ substantially in methodological depth and geographical scope. Early works such as Hayuth (1981) and Slack and Wang (2002) focused on descriptive mapping and conceptual discussion of spatial hierarchy, providing valuable qualitative insights but limited empirical validation. Later studies advanced this line of research by employing quantitative indicators of port performance and concentration ratios, reflecting a methodological shift toward data-driven evaluation (González Laxe et al., 2012; Notteboom, 2010). More recent analyses have extended the debate to Southeast Asian and Chinese contexts, demonstrating the increasing relevance of market concentration and competition under globalization pressures (Nguyen et al., 2020). However, the diversity in data scope, temporal coverage and analytical rigor across these studies reveals a fragmented understanding of how port hierarchy evolves under real-world shocks.

Building upon the theoretical framework, it is crucial to examine the effects of external shocks on port systems, which often act as catalysts for significant changes in market dynamics and hierarchy. Past events such as financial crises and geopolitical conflicts have demonstrated the vulnerability of ports to disruptions in trade flows (Kou et al., 2011; Yap and Yang, 2024). More recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has underscored this vulnerability, creating both challenges and opportunities for ports globally. Notteboom et al. (2021) highlighted the resilience of ports that adopted digital technologies and flexible operations during the pandemic, while Fedi et al. (2022) observed that smaller ports often outperformed larger hubs due to their agility and regional focus. For Vietnam, external shocks like COVID-19 have revealed disparities in the performance of its ports, making it a valuable case study for understanding how systemic disruptions influence port rankings, throughput and market concentration.

In synthesizing these studies, several patterns become evident. First, there is a growing academic shift from static to dynamic perspectives, with increasing attention paid to the temporal evolution of port performance rather than single-year snapshots. Second, the integration of technological and policy variables, such as digital transformation and governance capacity, has become central to explaining why certain ports demonstrate greater adaptability during crises. Third, while global and regional studies have expanded, there remains a lack of cross-scale analyses that connect macro- and micro-level concentration trends with micro-level operational outcomes. Recognizing these limitations provides a strong rationale for adopting an integrated and longitudinal approach in assessing port system transformation, particularly in emerging economies.

To evaluate these dynamics comprehensively, robust analytical tools and metrics are required. This study applies several well-established methods, including the HHI to evaluate market concentration, shift-share analysis to examine changes in market share and the super-DEA model to assess operational efficiency. These methods have been extensively validated in maritime research, with DEA commonly used to analyze the efficiency of ports across different regions and shift-share analysis frequently applied to investigate port mobility and market dynamics in various geographical contexts (Hanafy and Labib, 2017; Nguyen et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2017). While Nguyen et al. (2020) focused on competition and market concentration among major Southeast Asian ports using static indicators, the present study extends this line of research by applying a dynamic framework to Vietnam's container ports. Specifically, this study integrates market concentration, hierarchical shifts and efficiency analysis under external shocks, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding of both structural dynamics and resilience. By integrating these methods, the study not only provides a detailed analysis of Vietnam's port system but also ensures that its findings are comparable to global benchmarks. This analytical framework serves as a bridge between theoretical insights and practical evaluations, enabling a nuanced exploration of Vietnam's port dynamics.

From a methodological standpoint, this synthesis of HHI, shift-share and super-DEA analysis represents an evolution beyond earlier single-metric approaches. Prior research often examined competition or efficiency in isolation, which constrained the ability to identify causal relationships between market power and performance. Recent advances emphasize the necessity of a composite framework capable of capturing structural shifts (through HHI and shift-share) alongside operational productivity (through DEA). The present study adopts this integrative perspective to move beyond description toward explanation, linking changes in market hierarchy to efficiency outcomes within a coherent analytical structure.

Applying these methods to Vietnam, the country's port system is revealed as a rapidly evolving network in Southeast Asia, shaped by its strategic location and increasing integration into global supply chains. While some regions have demonstrated strong adaptability to external shocks by leveraging infrastructure investments to enhance their market position, others have faced challenges in maintaining competitiveness, underscoring regional disparities in resilience and growth potential (Fang et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2020; Notteboom et al., 2021). This study addresses gaps in existing research by examining the long-term impacts of external disruptions on Vietnam's port hierarchy and operational efficiency. The findings provide valuable insights into how strategic investments and policy interventions can strengthen the system's resilience and competitiveness.

Despite the increasing body of research on port systems, most existing studies have concentrated on developed regions or specific aspects such as throughput growth, market share, or efficiency evaluation, often overlooking the multidimensional nature of port dynamics in emerging economies. In particular, the Vietnamese port system remains relatively underexplored and fragmented in the literature. Prior works have largely examined individual ports or regional competition (Nguyen et al., 2020; Pham et al., 2016) rather than treating Vietnam's national port network as an integrated system. Consequently, there is limited understanding of how structural transformations, driven by external shocks such as the COVID-19 pandemic, geopolitical tensions and trade shifts, affect the interrelation between market concentration, port hierarchy and operational efficiency across northern, central and southern regions.

Addressing this gap, the present study investigates Vietnam's container port system as a unified and dynamic network, providing one of the first longitudinal assessments of how external disruptions reshape market competitiveness and efficiency performance at the national scale. By integrating established analytical approaches, including the HHI, shift-share analysis and super-efficiency DEA, this study bridges theoretical and empirical perspectives to capture the co-evolution of market structure and operational performance. In doing so, it contributes to a broader understanding of the resilience and adaptability of port systems in developing maritime economies.

The findings derived from this approach are expected to generate practical insights for policymakers and port authorities, emphasizing the importance of balanced regional development, digital transformation, infrastructure investment and coordinated governance across Vietnam's port network. Furthermore, the integrated framework proposed here provides a replicable model for analyzing port dynamics in other emerging economies, thereby extending the global discourse on competitiveness, resilience and sustainability in maritime transport systems.

Accordingly, the following section outlines the methodological framework and data sources employed to operationalize this integrated analysis, ensuring that the identified research gaps are empirically addressed through a systematic examination of Vietnam's container port system.

To ensure analytical coherence, this study adopts an integrated analytical framework that links market structure, hierarchical dynamics and operational efficiency within a unified baseline (Figure 2). Specifically, container throughput is used as the common reference variable across all analytical components, serving as the basis for assessing market share dynamics, concentration levels and efficiency performance. Changes in market share and concentration capture the system-level structural evolution of Vietnam's container port network, while efficiency analysis evaluates port-level operational responses within the same system. By embedding shift-share analysis, concentration measures and Super-DEA within a single framework, the study avoids isolated metric-based assessments and instead provides a consistent and integrated evaluation of competitiveness and resilience under external shocks.

To analyze the changes in market share among container ports in the region and level of market concentration, the study employs the shift-share analysis and concentration measures. Super-DEA is used to calculate the operational efficiency of these ports. This combination is chosen because shift-share and HHI capture structural and competitive dynamics in the port market, while Super-DEA provides a refined efficiency ranking that distinguishes highly efficient ports beyond the limitations of traditional DEA. Unlike Malmquist or slack-based measure (SBM) models, which emphasize temporal or slack-based efficiency, Super-DEA allows cross-sectional benchmarking suitable for heterogeneous port data. Integrating these approaches enables the study to link market structure with operational performance, offering a comprehensive assessment of competitiveness and resilience across Vietnam's port system. The summary of purposes, methods, data and scope of study is presented in Table 1.

Shift-share analysis is a valuable economic tool employed to comprehend shifts in regional market share dynamics (Marti, 2006). When applied within the container port market, this methodology elucidates the myriad factors influencing changes in container throughput at a specific port, taking into account its position and performance relative to other ports within the system. Within shift-share analysis, numerous studies have utilized container throughput as the primary dataset to assess alterations in market share among ports in a region or country (Marti, 2006). This analysis typically involves two key components: the shift-effect and the share-effect. The share-effect compares the absolute growth in container throughput at a port to the expected growth based on the average expansion of the entire port system. Conversely, the shift-effect gauges the market share a port acquires from others in the system. The shift- and share effects are identified as follows:

In the container port market, concentration indexes are essential tools used to assess the level of market concentration, revealing the dominance and competitive landscape within this industry (Ginevičius and Čirba, 2007; Notteboom, 1997). There are a lot of concentration indexes utilized in evaluating the container port market; two common indexes used in the studies are HHI and the concentration curve.

In the container port market, a concentration curve is a graphical representation used to visualize and analyze the distribution of market shares among different ports within the industry. It offers insights into the level of market concentration and the dominance of certain ports compared to others. The concentration curve is constructed by plotting cumulative market shares against the cumulative number of ports ranked from the largest to the smallest based on their market share (Nguyen et al., 2020). This curve helps to illustrate the degree of inequality or concentration within the container port market. For instance, if a few ports hold a substantial share of the market, the concentration curve will initially exhibit a steep upward slope, indicating significant concentration among a small number of ports. On the other hand, if market shares are more evenly distributed among various ports, the curve is flatter, showcasing a lower level of concentration.

HHI measures market concentration by summing the squares of the market shares of individual ports within the container port industry (Hanafy and Labib, 2017). A higher HHI indicates increased concentration, suggesting that a few ports hold a significant market share. It assists in evaluating the competitiveness and potential antitrust concerns within the market.

DEA is a method used to evaluate the relative efficiency of decision-making units (DMU) by comparing their input and output metrics (Charnes et al., 1978). In the traditional DEA model, the score of all efficient DMUs is 1, so it is difficult to compare these DMUs. Super-DEA is an extension of this method that aims to identify the most efficient DMUs by allowing certain units to be considered as benchmarks or reference points for assessing the efficiency of others (Li et al., 2021). In the container port market, the super-efficiency model is used to determine which ports are operating at the highest level of efficiency and understand the practices contributing to their success, compare the efficiency scores of super-efficient ports as benchmarks to measure and improve the performance of less efficient ports and assess the efficiency of individual ports objectively by considering multiple input and output factors, such as container throughput, operational costs, infrastructure and service quality. The Super-DEA model serves as a valuable tool in the container port market, providing insights into operational excellence, facilitating performance comparisons and guiding efforts to enhance efficiency and productivity across the industry (Li et al., 2021). The DEA super-efficiency model consists of two variations: constant return to scale (CRS) and variable return to scale (VRS). In the maritime port industry, factors like infrastructure, port equipment and warehouse area are relatively fixed in the short-term concerning scale changes. Hence, this research will employ the super-efficiency model with CRS and an output maximization focus to evaluate the efficiency of container ports. This choice is particularly appropriate for the purpose of this study, which requires distinguishing and ranking ports with high efficiency rather than merely classifying them as efficient or inefficient. Compared to other DEA-based approaches, such as the SBM model that emphasizes input slacks or the Malmquist index that measures productivity change over time, the Super-DEA model is more consistent with the objective of providing cross-sectional ranking under stable infrastructure conditions. The availability of multiple ports on the efficiency frontier in our dataset further justifies the adoption of Super-DEA, as it enables a clearer differentiation among these ports.

In this study, net-shift and efficiency scores are applied as complementary measures rather than interchangeable constructs. Net-shift analysis captures the dynamic changes in market share over time, reflecting external shocks and competitive mobility among ports. Meanwhile, super-DEA efficiency scores provide a static snapshot of how effectively each port utilizes its resources within a given time period. By combining these two perspectives, the study can evaluate whether throughput growth and market share gains are accompanied by improvements in operational efficiency, or whether they are primarily driven by external circumstances. This dual perspective has been adopted in previous port studies (Liu et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2025) and helps to identify mismatches between growth and efficiency.

This study examines the changes in Vietnam's seaport system before and after the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the sixteen largest ports in the country. These sixteen ports collectively account for over 87% of Vietnam's total container throughput and represent a significant portion of the country's port infrastructure. They are strategically distributed across Vietnam's three main coastal regions, including the Northern, Central and Southern regions, capturing the diversity of geographical, operational and infrastructural characteristics within the national port network. This selection includes both major gateway ports, such as Hai Phong and Tan Cang Cat Lai and medium-sized regional ports such as Danang, Quy Nhon and Ben Nghe, which together reflect variations in cargo-handling capacity, ownership structure and technological adoption. Such a composition ensures that the dataset accurately represents the hierarchical and functional diversity of Vietnam's container port system, thereby providing a robust empirical basis for assessing national-level market concentration, competition and efficiency dynamics.

Container throughput is used to analyze shifts in market share among seaports via shift-share analysis and to assess changes in the level of market concentration. The study collected container throughput data from these sixteen ports spanning from 2014 to 2023. Container throughput also serves as the output variable in the super-DEA model. Additionally, the super-DEA model considers various input variables, including container yard capacity, berth length, number of cranes and depth. These factors are crucial in evaluating the operational efficiency and productivity of these ports. These variables were selected because they represent the fundamental physical capacities that directly constrain or enable container handling performance. Container yard capacity captures the storage and stacking potential of terminals, berth length reflects the ability to accommodate larger vessels, the number of cranes indicates the handling intensity and speed of operations and depth determines accessibility for ships of different sizes. These input indicators are widely applied in previous DEA studies of port efficiency (Li et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2017), ensuring consistency with established methodologies while maintaining empirical relevance to Vietnam's port system. Summary statistics for the data are described in Table 2.

The Vietnamese seaport system, comprising nearly 80 ports of various sizes, handled approximately 17.7 million TEUs in 2023, with three ports ranking among the world's top 50 largest ports. Despite the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, which slowed growth for many ports, others capitalized on the disruption to increase their market share. An examination of the 2019 data, positioned between the 2014 and 2023 observations, reveals a gradual reduction in market concentration even before the pandemic. The cumulative throughput curve for 2019 lies consistently between those for 2014 and 2023, indicating that the dominance of the largest ports had already begun to erode. For instance, the combined share of the top three ports decreased from 57% in 2014 to 54% in 2019, and further to 50% in 2023, reflecting a steady redistribution of volumes toward medium-sized ports (Figure 3). This pre-pandemic shift was subsequently accelerated by the operational and routing adjustments triggered by COVID-19, amplifying the competitive position of emerging ports. This dynamic shift has resulted in a decline in market concentration, as reflected in the HHI, which fell from 21.9% in 2014 to 17.9% in 2023 (Figure 4). While the top 16 ports still accounted for nearly 90% of throughput in both 2014 and 2023, the largest port, CLI, saw its share decline from 38% to 31%. This trend underscores the growing significance of medium-sized and small-scale ports, which are increasingly capturing market share, providing more routing options for cargo owners and shipping lines and diversifying the operational landscape of Vietnam's maritime sector.

This trend aligns with global observations where smaller ports are emerging as competitive players. In regions like Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) and Europe, market concentration has also declined as medium and small ports gained ground (Fedi et al., 2022; Wilmsmeier et al., 2014). Similar to Vietnam, LAC ports such as Lázaro Cárdenas have challenged dominant hubs like Colón and Santos, reflecting the “challenge of the periphery” phase (Hayuth, 1981). However, in Europe, dominant ports such as Rotterdam maintain their market positions due to advanced infrastructure and policy support (van der Lugt et al., 2014). Vietnam's case highlights the potential for medium and small ports to grow if supported by strategic investments in technology and infrastructure, mirroring successful global strategies such as the integration of global terminal operators. This evolution in Vietnam's seaport system underscores the importance of fostering balanced growth across port tiers to ensure resilience and competitiveness in the global maritime industry.

The Vietnamese port system experienced heightened volatility during the COVID-19 period, with ports affected in uneven ways. As illustrated in Figure 5, southern ports like TCC&TCI and TTT demonstrated exceptional absolute growth, gaining over 1 million TEUs collectively from 2014 to 2023. These ports benefitted from strategic investments in infrastructure and their ability to attract transshipment traffic, indicating a strong correlation between adaptability and growth during systemic disruptions. Conversely, northern ports such as HPH and DVU exhibited negative growth, losing over −278,378 TEUs and struggling to recover in the post-pandemic period, reflecting their limited capacity to respond to dynamic market conditions. This disparity between northern and southern ports aligns with global trends observed in the LAC region, where ports like Lázaro Cárdenas outperformed dominant hubs like Colón during external shocks (Wilmsmeier et al., 2014). These findings emphasize the need for decentralized development to bolster Vietnam's overall port network.

The rankings of Vietnamese ports have displayed significant mobility across regions during the analyzed periods, as shown in Figure 4. Ports such as TCC&TCI and TTT rose steadily in rank, driven by their throughput growth (+421,706 TEUs for TCC&TCI during 2020–2023) and operational efficiency. Meanwhile, traditional hubs like CLI and VIC faced rank declines, with CLI losing over −371,727 TEUs post-COVID due to inefficiencies and congestion (Table 3). The findings on the mobility of Vietnamese port rankings align with broader patterns observed in studies of port dynamics under systemic disruptions. The rise of certain ports, such as TCC&TCI and TTT, highlights the importance of throughput growth and operational efficiency as drivers of competitiveness, a trend also identified in global research. For example, Nguyen et al. (2024) showed that Asian ports leveraging infrastructure investments and digitalization often enhanced their market share and rankings during periods of external shocks. Similarly, Li et al. (2022) found that peripheral or emerging ports in China capitalized on opportunities created by market disruptions, challenging the dominance of traditional hubs. This is consistent with the performance of TCC&TCI and TTT, which benefited from strategic improvements and adaptability during the post-COVID period. In contrast, the decline in rankings of traditional hubs like CLI and VIC mirrors findings from previous research, which suggests that established ports are more vulnerable to congestion and inefficiencies during times of external shocks. Notteboom et al. (2021) highlighted that larger hubs in European systems often faced capacity constraints and logistical bottlenecks during periods of demand volatility, leading to a loss of competitiveness. This aligns with CLI's post-COVID performance, where inefficiencies and congestion resulted in a loss of over 371,727 TEUs, emphasizing the challenges faced by well-established ports when operational capacity and flexibility are insufficient to respond to systemic shocks.

During the period following the COVID-19 outbreak, market volatility was amplified, disproportionately affecting ports across Vietnam. As shown in Figure 3, ports like DAD and DVU demonstrated resilience, leveraging regional connectivity to achieve throughput gains of +96,548 TEUs and +25,687 TEUs, respectively. These successes highlight the potential of ports with flexible operations and regional trade alignment to thrive during crises. On the other hand, major ports such as CLI and CMT faced significant challenges, with negative share effects and continued throughput losses. Similar trends were observed in the Mediterranean, where smaller ports like Valencia outperformed larger hubs during the pandemic due to agility and digital preparedness (Fedi et al., 2022). These findings underscore the importance of fostering operational flexibility and diversifying traffic flows to enhance resilience across Vietnam's port system.

The trends illustrated in Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8 and Table 3 provide critical insights for future development. Ports like TTT and TCC&TCI highlight the benefits of strategic investments and efficient operations, serving as benchmarks for the modernization of Vietnam's port network. Conversely, ports with declining rankings, such as CLI and HPH, underscore the need for targeted interventions, including infrastructure upgrades and digital transformation, to restore competitiveness. These changes in market share dynamics raise a fundamental question about the relationship between market share and operational efficiency. While some ports gained throughput due to favorable conditions, their efficiency in utilizing resources to sustain this growth remains unclear. The next section explores this relationship in greater detail, evaluating how efficiency contributes to the competitive positioning of Vietnamese ports amid external shocks and dynamic market conditions.

The shifts in market share and port rankings within Vietnam's seaport system, particularly under external disruptions such as the COVID-19 pandemic, underscore the fluid and evolving nature of the national port network. While ports like TTT and TCC&TCI recorded substantial market share growth through strategic investments and adaptability, traditional hubs such as CLI struggled with congestion and infrastructure limitations. These contrasting trajectories raise an important question: to what extent does an increase in market share translate into sustained operational efficiency and long-term competitiveness? To address this issue, it is necessary to examine the relationship between market share dynamics and efficiency performance. Accordingly, the following section (4.3) investigates this interplay, assessing whether ports that have gained market share are also able to utilize resources effectively to ensure long-term sustainability in a volatile market environment.

The analysis of Vietnam's seaport system in sections 4.1 and 4.2 highlights the shifting landscape of market concentration and port hierarchy under the impact of external shocks such as the COVID-19 pandemic. While section 4.1 explored the decline in market concentration and the rise of medium-sized and small ports as competitive players, section 4.2 delved into the effects of external shocks on port rankings and throughput dynamics. Building upon these insights, this section evaluates the relationship between market share dynamics and operational efficiency, addressing whether market share growth translates into sustained effectiveness.

As shown in Figure 9, the period from 2014 to 2023 witnessed divergent trajectories among Vietnam's ports. Ports like TTT and TCC&TCI recorded significant market share gains, with TTT achieving the largest absolute growth, reflecting its strategic infrastructure development and ability to attract transshipment traffic. Conversely, CLI, despite being Vietnam's largest port, saw the most substantial market share loss of over −1,000,000 TEUs, indicating inefficiencies and congestion that hampered its competitiveness. These findings align with global trends where dominant hubs increasingly face competition from more agile and adaptable ports. For instance, the Port of Shanghai has demonstrated the importance of investing in intelligent port infrastructure and leveraging hub-and-spoke collusion strategies to enhance financial performance and improve the efficiency of port and shipping operations in a highly competitive environment (Zhao et al., 2024). Similarly, the Port of Busan in South Korea adapted effectively to global disruptions by rapidly adopting digital technologies and strengthening intermodal connectivity, enabling it to manage shifting trade patterns with greater resilience (Eom et al., 2023). These cases underscore the critical importance of strategic investments in technology, infrastructure and operational agility to sustain competitiveness and resilience in an evolving maritime landscape, providing valuable lessons for Vietnam's ports in their pursuit of growth and stability.

To complement the market share analysis, a comparative assessment of operational efficiency provides additional insights into the performance landscape of Vietnamese ports. Table 4 presents efficiency scores and rankings across the three main regions, revealing notable disparities. The South dominates the upper tier, with CLI, TCC&TCI and TTT achieving the highest scores, underscoring their strong operational capabilities despite differing market share trajectories. In the Central region, DAD stands out as a leading performer, while in the North, NHD leads but with only mid-range efficiency. At the lower end of the ranking, ports such as HPP, CSG and UIH exhibit persistent inefficiencies, suggesting structural and managerial challenges. This regional breakdown sets the stage for the quadrant analysis in Figure 9, which links these efficiency outcomes with changes in market share to provide a more holistic evaluation of competitiveness.

This regional breakdown sets the stage for a quadrant analysis that integrates efficiency outcomes from Table 4 with market share changes over 2014–2023, providing a more holistic evaluation of competitiveness. As shown in Figure 10, ports are categorized into four quadrants based on their efficiency scores and net market share shifts. Ports in Quadrant 1, such as TTT and TCC&TCI, achieved both market share gains and high efficiency scores, showcasing their comprehensive success in responding to market demands. This aligns with global examples like Rotterdam, where efficiency and advanced governance contribute to sustained competitiveness (Fedi et al., 2022). On the other hand, Quadrant 2 includes ports like CLI, which lost market share despite relatively high efficiency scores. This suggests that factors such as infrastructure limitations or external competition may have outweighed their operational advantages. In contrast, ports in Quadrant 3, such as CSG and HPH, faced declines in both market share and efficiency, reflecting systemic challenges that require immediate attention. Finally, Quadrant 4, comprising ports like DAD and BNE, gained market share despite moderate efficiency scores, indicating growth driven more by market circumstances than operational improvements.

The disconnect between market share dynamics and efficiency, as observed in Figure 10, underscores the need for a nuanced approach to port development. The integration of net-shift values and efficiency scores should not be interpreted as a direct comparison of two identical metrics, but rather as a complementary framework. While net-shift reveals the dynamics of market share changes, efficiency scores highlight the ability of ports to utilize resources effectively within a given period. This approach allows the identification of ports that gain market share through operational improvements (Quadrant 1), as opposed to those whose growth is shaped mainly by external shocks or structural factors (Quadrants 2 and 4). While ports like TTT and TCC&TCI exemplify the ideal balance between growth and efficiency, others, such as DAD and CLI, highlight the diverse pathways through which market share dynamics unfold. The Vietnamese experience mirrors global trends, where smaller and medium-sized ports increasingly challenge dominant hubs by leveraging agility and localized advantages. For ports in Quadrants 2 and 3, targeted interventions such as infrastructure upgrades, digital transformation and enhanced connectivity are essential to restore competitiveness. Lessons can be drawn from Rotterdam Port, which has established a comprehensive information infrastructure, including the container information terminal operating system for port operation management, the interconnected Portbase system for seamless information sharing and a big data center for centralized value chain management (Xu et al., 2024). This integrated approach has significantly enhanced Rotterdam's efficiency and ability to adapt to market demands. Similarly, Laem Chabang Port, consistently ranked among the world's top 20 container ports by Lloyd's List, demonstrates the value of strategic investments in infrastructure and operational excellence to maintain throughput and global competitiveness. These examples underscore the importance of a holistic strategy for Vietnamese ports, combining advanced technology and value chain integration. Furthermore, ports in Quadrant 4 should focus on improving operational efficiency to sustain their growth trajectories, ensuring that market share gains translate into long-term success.

This study provides a comprehensive assessment of Vietnam's container port system from 2014 to 2023, focusing on market concentration, hierarchy and the relationship between market share dynamics and operational efficiency. Using the HHI, shift-share analysis and super-DEA modeling, the results reveal a gradual decline in market concentration and growing competitiveness as medium-sized and smaller ports expand their market shares. Ports such as TCC&TCI and TTT illustrate how strategic investment and adaptability can drive growth even during disruptions like COVID-19, while traditional hubs such as CLI experienced losses due to congestion and inefficiencies.

However, market share expansion does not always correspond to higher efficiency. The super-DEA results show that some ports (DAD and BNE) achieved throughput growth mainly from external factors rather than productivity improvements, emphasizing the need for technology, governance and infrastructure upgrades. These findings highlight the need for differentiated policy approaches: ports with both declining efficiency and market share (CSG and HPH) require urgent modernization and digitalization, while growing ports with moderate efficiency (DAD and BNE) need targeted support to sustain performance and ensure balanced national port development. This pattern of differentiated performance underscores that not all ports face the same strategic priorities.

For port authorities, the results reveal contrasting priorities. Quadrant 2 ports, such as CLI, which retain relatively high efficiency but experience market share loss, should focus on strengthening hinterland connectivity, improving congestion management and adopting more proactive marketing strategies to remain competitive. Quadrant 1 ports, including TTT, TCC and TCI, provide best-practice examples, demonstrating that simultaneous gains in market share and efficiency can be achieved through continuous investment in infrastructure, the adoption of automation technologies and advanced governance models. These ports can serve as benchmarks for others in the system.

For shipping lines and cargo owners, the results suggest strategic opportunities to diversify their routing choices toward emerging ports, particularly those in Quadrants 1 and 4. Such diversification can reduce reliance on traditional hubs, mitigate the risks of congestion and lower logistic costs. The increasing competitiveness of medium-sized ports offers shippers more flexible options, strengthening the overall resilience of supply chains.

At the policy level, these findings align closely with Vietnam's ongoing maritime development agenda. The Master Plan for Vietnam's Seaport System 2021–2030, Vision to 2050, promotes the balanced growth of regional port clusters and modernization of gateway and transshipment facilities. The government's National Digital Transformation Strategy emphasizes smart-port adoption, automation and data-based management, while the Maritime Industry Development Strategy to 2030 prioritizes sustainable logistics corridors and hinterland connectivity. Local initiatives in key port cities such as Haiphong, Danang and Ho Chi Minh City complement these frameworks through investments in road and rail access, green-port programs and private sector participation. Together, these multilevel policies create an enabling environment that supports the structural and efficiency improvements identified in this study, reinforcing the link between institutional planning and port system competitiveness.

At the system level, the Vietnamese case provides a replicable framework for other emerging economies. Applying similar metrics and methodologies can help policymakers evaluate port performance comprehensively, while regional collaboration can facilitate a more balanced distribution of trade flows. This reduces over-dependence on dominant hubs, enhances resilience to external shocks and ensures a more inclusive development of the national port network.

From a methodological standpoint, the analytical framework adopted in this study is designed to be reproducible and adaptable to other port systems. By integrating standardized indicators–such as throughput-based market shares, concentration measures (HHI) and efficiency scores derived from DEA, the framework can be directly applied to other datasets with similar variables. Researchers and practitioners can replicate the analysis by collecting time-series throughput and input–output data for ports in other countries, enabling cross-comparative evaluations of competition, efficiency and resilience. This reproducibility strengthens the study's contribution as a practical tool for benchmarking port performance across different economic and geographic contexts.

In terms of impact and relevance, this research contributes both theoretically and practically. Theoretically, it deepens understanding of how market structure and operational performance interact under external shocks, particularly in emerging maritime systems where empirical evidence has been limited. Practically, it offers a decision-support framework for policymakers to design regionally balanced investment strategies, enhance efficiency and identify ports requiring policy intervention. The results can inform Vietnam's seaport master plan and provide a scientific basis for promoting digitalization, sustainability and coordinated regional growth.

Future research may build upon this framework by incorporating additional dimensions such as digital transformation readiness, environmental performance and carbon reduction initiatives. Linking operational data with environmental and technological indicators would enable a more holistic assessment of “green competitiveness” within port systems. This direction enhances the policy relevance of future studies and supports the transition toward smarter, more sustainable port development models in both Vietnam and other developing economies.