Career adaptability in the context of horizontal skill mismatch: evidence from food delivery gig workers

The gig economy is characterised as an emerging form of workforce. The employment structure is task-oriented, short-term and ad hoc work within a flexible, autonomous work arrangement. The platforms consider workers to be independent contractors or self-employed due to the absence of a labour contract, placing them outside the traditional employer–employee relationship (De Stefano, 2015). The classification of gig work encompasses two distinct forms: physical gig work, which is location-dependent, and includes food delivery, cab services and cleaning services. Second, digital gig work is location-independent and includes web designing, data entry and content development (Heeks et al., 2021).

The career development of an individual depends on sustainable employment. It is accomplished by improving skills, aligning education with career and focusing on continuous career growth. In gig work, the participation of highly educated young people will lead to a horizontal skill mismatch. This directs them off the academic track, into underemployment and a mismatch between their skills and their careers. In gig work individual are provided with immediate access to employment, which may act as a barrier to achieving sustainable development goal 4 (SDG 4) - Quality Education. Entering the workforce at an early age, without consideration for employment in roles related to academics, and a complete lack of interest in career development (Gore et al., 2024). Such changes in the labour market raise further questions about the quality of education, as there is an attempt to ensure that higher education meets employer demands rather than focusing on general educational or intellectual purposes. A holistic approach to qualifications, as well as the privatisation of universities, can be attributed to employers’ interests (Wheelahan and Moodie, 2022).

Achieving SDG 4 helps promote lifelong learning for gig workers by reducing the skill mismatch, weak industry linkages and focusing on transferable skills. Platforms allow workers to establish an informal learning space and to develop adaptive skills. In digital labour skills, both informally and formally, they contribute to improving education equity and mobility (Lee et al., 2016). The gig economy labour market has been a booming trend in recent years, with the rise of new technologies, market volatility and a shifting workforce. India has a huge youth population, and several well-educated individuals choose to follow the gig economy. The factors responsible for engaging in gig work are low formal employment opportunities, economic compulsion and preference towards flexible jobs. According to the report issued by NITI Aayog in June 2023, the number of gig workers is reported to be 23.5 million (Aayog, 2022). Many young people are opting for, and shifting to, gig work, intentionally or unintentionally.

In developing economies, the gig economy marginally reduces unemployment but also causes skill mismatches. Educated gig workers are in a stage to perform low-skilled tasks; this underutilization of the educated labour force may affect their well-being, reduce job satisfaction and limit earning capacity. From a macroeconomic perspective, underutilization of skills hinders economic growth, limits economic diversification and lowers workforce productivity. This may restrict the nation’s capacity to optimally mobilise human capital for fostering innovation and development. Especially on food delivery platforms, it promotes horizontal mismatch. In this job, workers do not have a career ladder, and there is no specific skill set that workers are being purposefully trained to fit into the platform. Workers are gradually accomplishing the same in adapting their skills to the platform (Adams and Adams, 2008; Frenken and Fuenfschilling, 2021). Other studies suggest that gig work could enable the acquisition of a variety of skills and informal learning, whereas others observe that persistent discrepancies could lead to deskilling and career instability in the long term (Vallas and Schor, 2020). In gig work, the driving factors and career planning always remain debatable. Many people take on this job due to low barriers to entry, autonomy in their work, personal income requirements and the fact that many lost their jobs during the COVID-19 pandemic (Naidoo et al., 2024). These jobs are generally viewed as temporary, include the lack of career planning, no promotion, limited upward mobility and low job security. Most of the workers wanted to get either stable jobs or entrepreneurship, yet due to their economic hardship, they continued longer than they had intended.

Food delivery gig workers operate under precarious working conditions, despite the flexibility and autonomy they offer. These workers are under the supervision of control algorithms that take complete authority over the work assignment and assessment; as a result, precarious work is inevitable. Precarious employment gives rise to job insecurities, unstable earnings, health risks, financial instabilities and social protections (Parwez and Ranjan, 2021; Pieczka and Miszczyński, 2024). The platform shifts the risk to workers while avoiding their accountability. A food delivery job is classified as low-skilled work with limited career planning opportunities, which will result in lowering the workers’ well-being (Bieber and Moggia, 2021). Gig workers are exposed to precariousness, including an uncertain working environment, tight evaluation of control algorithms and a lack of social protection, which negatively impacts their psychological well-being (Mbare, 2023). The other aspect, which is underexplored, is career progression and a lack of skill development, which constrain well-being.

Despite the growing literature on the gig economy, most studies examine the precariousness workers face, including income irregularities, working conditions and career uncertainty. An important research gap remains: a horizontal skill mismatch emerges among workers. In developing economies, where the educated individuals are often engaged in low-skilled gig work. Furthermore, career adaptability is widely examined in the traditional employment context; very few studies have examined the career aspects of physical gig workers. This study attempts to analyse the relevance of career adaptability in managing mismatch in gig work, which remains underexplored. To explore the role of career adaptability and the extent to which horizontal mismatch impacts the food delivery gig workers’ well-being. Therefore, this study examines the relationship between career adaptability, horizontal skill mismatch and worker well-being among the delivery gig workers:

• To assess the relationship between horizontal skill mismatch and career adaptability;

• to determine the impact of horizontal skill mismatch and career adaptability on the well-being of food delivery gig workers; and

• to assess the coping mechanisms of career adaptability on horizontal skill mismatch and workers’ well-being.

This study strengthens the literature by integrating the concept of horizontal skill mismatch, career adaptability and workers’ well-being among food delivery gig workers in India. The further sections of the paper cover the literature review, methodology, conceptual framework and SEM analysis.

Career choices are crucial in deciding whether an individual’s career is sustainable. Career sustainability shapes workers’ satisfaction, motivation and well-being. Assessing career adaptability is a key factor in empowering individuals to build meaningful and enduring career trajectories in an ever-evolving job landscape and supports lifelong employability and well-being. With this, career adaptability is grounded in the career construction theory (CCT), which is useful for analysing proactive personality, psychological capital and career motivation. So, career adaptability is used as a key construct in the study. Educational skill mismatch is operationalised as a horizontal skill mismatch, which reflects the divergence between individual education and the occupational domain. The study proposes to examine the extent to which the horizontal skill mismatch and career adaptability impact workers’ well-being. The reviews were collected on career adaptability, horizontal mismatch and workers’ well-being.

The concept of career adaptability is important for evaluating individual responses to changes in the labour market. The concept of career adaptability is important for evaluating individual responses to changes in the labour market (Savickas, 1997). It is a psychological phenomenon that helps a person cope with career changes and workplace uncertainties. An in-depth discussion with previous literature on career adaptability among diverse groups offers broader insights. Career adaptability is examined by four dimensions: concern, control, curiosity and confidence from CCT. The four dimensions have been used to evaluate different groups, such as students, unemployed individuals, self-employed individuals and gig economy workers, and it was observed that all groups produced positive effects. First, the discussion is carried out with non-gig workers. A previous study assessed the effects of Career adaptability and decent work dimension on the quality of life of 228 independent tourism workers in Portugal. It was found that there is a strong relationship between decent work and career adaptability, and the significance of self-efficacy, analytical skill and constant learning was emphasised (Faria et al., 2024). Next, a systematic review of 116 articles found that career adaptability is a psychosocial factor that facilitates employees’ career management, adaptation to life changes and sustained well-being. The review reported gaps, including the lack of empirical testing of interventions, the lack of elucidation of resource mechanisms and the lack of use of cross-cultural and cross-experimental designs (Johnston, 2018). On the same note, control and confidence predicted life satisfaction and positive affect among 184 unemployed emerging adults, whereas curiosity and concern did not play significant roles (Konstam et al., 2015). One such study that considered Chinese graduate students found that the role of the career mediator lies between career capital and well-being. Findings from previous studies indicate that during the pandemic, psychological capital protects against the negative outcomes associated with career adaptability (Rai and Mukherjee, 2024). Next, the discussion moves towards gig workers. The gig career has three stages: establish, embed and expand. Across these stages, these workers experience challenges, learning, behaviour awareness and emotional balancing strategies. Career development is possible through acquiring skills, flexibility and self-awareness at each stage. In the dynamic nature of platform-based work, the gig workers are experiencing career shock. In existing literature, to overcome the career shock, the theories of Conservation Resource and Survival Optimisation System are combined with the Threat Adaptive Behaviour (TAB) model (Zwettler et al., 2024). In another study, career resilience is examined among gig workers, outcomes revealed that career resilience helps in handling uncertainty, developing competence and career development (Zheng et al., 2026).On comparing career resilience, career adaptability is a holistic concept responsible for career transitions and sustainable career development. Another study among university students suggested that their adaptability is based on concern for prior vocational identities and career decisions for greater future career growth (Yılmaz, 2026). From the literature reviews, it is evident that career adaptability is largely focused on work challenges and psychological aspects; another area that needs focus is addressing horizontal skill mismatch and deskilling in the dynamic labour market of gig workers. This research attempts to address the underutilization of gig workers’ skills and their adaptation to horizontal mismatches in their working environment. Eventually, Career adaptability serves as a central variable in the current study.

Career adaptability is associated with the CCT. This theory refers to the psychological resources that help people cope with career-related challenges in the workplace. Career adaptability is used in managing one’s career development in a modern, uncertain setting (Tokar et al., 2020). The CCT gives four resources for career adaptability, which are as follows: concern – future-focused planning and preparation for one’s career development; control – exercising autonomy and career decision-making; curiosity – trying alternative professional roles, career progression patterns and constructing aspirational future identities; and confidence – belief in self-ability towards work and achieving success in career despite constraints. These career adaptability dimensions are adopted for the study.

The exponential growth of the gig economy has reshaped the labour market, encouraging workers to accept jobs that do not match their skill sets. The horizontal mismatch in the workplace refers to the misalignment between workers’ acquired competencies and the context of their work, resulting in lower earnings, job dissatisfaction and reduced overall productivity (McGuinness et al., 2018). In physical gig work, there is a high chance of a horizontal skill mismatch with tight algorithmic control. Algorithmic control makes workers concentrate on the completion of the task assigned to them, rather than improving their skill sets (Lehdonvirta et al., 2019; Wood et al., 2019a). The platform offers employment opportunities regardless of educational background, including many highly educated or highly skilled workers performing low-skilled work. This leads to a mismatch between vocational training and the requirements of the digital labour market; as a result, these workers face labour market frictions, unstable income and low motivation (Kässi and Lehdonvirta, 2018). Another related concern is deskilling. On digital platforms, workers are expected to perform programmed work, which will lead to deskilling, skill weakening or underuse of their skills. It reflects Marx’s concept of machinery, in which gig workers perform tasks directed by control algorithms (Buissink, 2023). Gig workers in driving services and food delivery are engaged in routinised tasks standardised by algorithmic management. Often, these workers possess more skills than their jobs require. However, in practice, such employees possess excessive abilities regarding digital literacy, communication and analytical skills (Jandoc et al., 2026). It has been established before that algorithmic management entails tight surveillance, invisible assessment of employee performance, low pay and daily pressure to achieve targets. With this constrained role, development leads to deskilling. This condition is termed “lock-down”. Another existing study examining career immobility and the concept of person-career fit among delivery riders and ride-hailing drivers reveals a conflict between short- and long-term misfit (Zheng et al., 2026). This study attempts to assess the horizontal mismatch, its relationship with career adaptability and workers’ well-being.

Person–job fit theory deals with the degree of alignment between an individual’s knowledge, skills, abilities and the current job’s attributes. High person–job fit occurs when the employees meet the capabilities that are required for the job, resulting in a positive outcome with higher job satisfaction, performance and well-being (Cable and DeRue, 2002; Edwards, 1991). The horizontal mismatch can be explained using person–job fit theory, which evaluates the fit between workers’ education levels and their job skills. The poor fit of the person to the job can therefore be considered a horizontal mismatch, or an individual being placed in a job beyond his/her training. At a personal level, if they are educated differently from the skills required for their job, they may find very few opportunities for advancement (Liu and Ge, 2025). Limited alignment is horizontal mismatching, which means that the worker is assigned to a job that is not aligned with his training or specialisation, which lowers job satisfaction, underutilization of human capital and productivity (Allen and Van der Velden, 2001). In earlier studies, the effect of person–job fit on kindergarten teachers has been studied. It was found that occupational satisfaction and person–job fit need organisational support. It reveals that horizontal mismatch evaluations were carried out using self-assessment, realised match, modified realised match and a demand-driven approach. The outcome shows that the modified realised match and demand drive better results in addressing skill mismatch (Lu et al., 2026). Another literature review was conducted among 158 gig workers on food delivery platforms in Turkey. Examining the person–job fit with these workers revealed a positive impact on job satisfaction and psychological well-being, further highlighting the need for platform support, transparent recruitment, right training and skill development strategies and extensive study with larger samples (Yalçınkaya and Akgündüz, 2025).

Protean career theory is articulated as a self-directed, values-driven approach; it rests on the premise that career management is the responsibility of workers. Career success is defined as subjective (psychological well-being, personal growth) rather than based on the conventional hierarchical career progression. This theory reflects the nature of the gig economy context, where workers operate in a highly flexible and unstable work environment, in a context of frequently navigating career transitions, non-linear career paths, autonomy and skill shifts (Hall, 1996, 2004). A recent study carried out in Bangladesh with university students found that the human capital theory, Boundaryless and Protean Career Model are used to explain that gig work, in parallel, creates opportunities and at times challenges students’ academic-oriented careers. These individuals find themselves in platform jobs, thus leading to adverse effects on their careers and progress (Ziad et al., 2025). Using the theories presented above, the horizontal mismatch theory was employed in the research process.

Employee well-being is a core aspect in shaping the workers’ satisfaction and organisational outcomes. The food delivery gig work is associated with insecurity, social protections and high risk. These workers are under precarious conditions, including long working hours, heavy traffic, uncertain environmental conditions, low-skilled jobs and high rates of road accidents (Wood et al., 2019b). Existing literature examines the gig workers’ psychological well-being and analyses the mental health, life satisfaction, stress and loneliness dimensions (Li et al., 2023). The career growth and skill development dimension remains underexplored. Highly skilled gig workers receive better platform assistance than low-skilled gig workers, as the former enjoy greater market demand, whereas the latter lack institutional support (Klein et al., 2024). The availability of resources in the workplace is important in influencing worker productivity. To promote well-being among its workforce, a platform needs to protect workers, provide regular feedback and engage them in motivational practices (Nielsen et al., 2017). In earlier findings, well-being and social job characteristics were examined among 800 food delivery gig workers in the Chinese hospitality industry, with responses indicating that intrinsic motivation feedback mechanisms improve the workers’ well-being. Gig work in the food delivery industry is often considered to require limited skills and, therefore, underutilises workers’ skills and human capital. Motivation has a positive impact on the well-being of food delivery workers (Kurian and Bindu Madhavi, 2024). The empirical literature on well-being remains underdeveloped, particularly regarding the link between well-being and self-reported attributes among gig workers. The factors that affect the job satisfaction of conventional workers include physical health, social well-being and overall life satisfaction. In this regard, broadening the scope of the research to include a career dimension will yield more comprehensive data on gig workers’ well-being. The literature review suggests an increasing need to research the effects of career adaptability and horizontal skill mismatch on workers’ well-being.

The employee well-being theoretical model, as suggested by Zheng et al. (2015), was based on Page and Vella-Brodrick (2009), which has three important dimensions: life well-being, work well-being and psychological well-being. According to the literature, the concept of employees’ well-being, along with the psychology of working theory, can be applied to examine the link between decent work and Chinese millennials. According to the literature, better conditions of decent work will lead to employees’ well-being (Wan and Cao, 2022). The present study examines individual satisfaction, positive emotions, personal growth and effective functioning at work. For this study, only the work well-being dimension is considered, as the horizontal mismatch and career adaptability are directly linked with the work domain. Based on the literature reviewed and guiding theories, the conceptual framework has been established to examine the relation between horizontal skill mismatch, career adaptability and workers’ well-being among food delivery gig workers.

The conceptual framework provides methodological clarity for the study and illustrates the hypothetical relationships among the constructs in Figure 1. It has a relevant theoretical foundation and prior empirical evidence, which provide a systematic framework for variable selection, model development and the interpretation of results. In this study, Horizontal mismatch is the independent variable, Career adaptability is the mediating variable, and the worker’s well-being is the dependent variable.

Based on the literature and theoretical framework, the hypotheses were framed:

In the context of food delivery gig workers, a horizontal skill mismatch is inevitable due to the underutilisation of skills and educational competencies. Previous literature suggested that individuals engage in a food delivery job as a temporary job to cope with financial uncertainties. In the context of food delivery gig workers, a horizontal skill mismatch is inevitable due to the underutilisation of skills and educational competencies. Previous literature suggested that individuals engage in a food delivery job as a temporary job to cope with financial uncertainties. The lack of opportunities for formal employment represents another factor motivating workers to stay engaged with the gig platforms on a sustained basis (Rahman et al., 2022). The inability of the platforms to support the career development of workers represents yet another challenge they pose to gig economy workers (Azalea and Lin, 2026). Increasing engagement in physical gig work by educated and young people in the delivery industry poses another threat to for increasing the horizontal mismatch. This study applies the CCT to deal with horizontal mismatch:

In a gig employment scenario, employees must deal with issues in the work environment, job instability, transitions and career management challenges. From previous reviews, the presence of precariousness has been shown to adversely affect the well-being of workers. Career adaptability factors can enhance workers’ ability to manage employment uncertainty and improve psychological well-being. Career adaptability also helps workers to achieve positive career and life outcomes despite workplace challenges (Azalea and Lin, 2026). Therefore, there is a need to analyse food delivery gig workers to assess the extent to which career adaptability influences their well-being:

The well-being of gig workers may be affected by a horizontal skills mismatch, which arises from a mismatch between their education and employment. Person–job fit theory explains the negative consequences of a mismatch between employees’ skills and job requirements. Low-skilled gig jobs make the worker feel dissatisfied and unmotivated at work, which reflects on their perceived career value relative to that of educated individuals (Alam et al., 2024) . Therefore, it is expected that horizontal skill mismatch may impact the workers’ well-being.

The estimation of the food delivery gig workforce is difficult because of the mobility of the workers and the uncertain nature of their employment. As the gig labour force is not captured in traditional labour force surveys, determining its population remains challenging. The gig labour market enables workers to operate across multiple platforms (Abraham et al., 2017). The absence of a clear definition and the inconsistent global classification of workers due to this ambiguity further undermines the accuracy of population estimates (De Stefano, 2015). Various reports and previous studies estimate the population size of gig workers in India, but they provide an appropriate estimate rather than an accurate figure. Therefore, this approach employs the proper methodology to determine the sample size. This methodology offers valid and verifiable estimates of the population by restricting the scope of the research to a geographical region and estimating the size of a certain population. The data obtained from the government source helps us determine the size of the target population. The present study focuses on three aspects: horizontal mismatch, career adaptability and worker well-being among food delivery gig workers. From the literature review and demographic characteristics (Table 1) of respondents, it is revealed that there is a who are employed in food delivery jobs, which can be considered as evidence of horizontal skill mismatch.

For this study, a quantitative cross-sectional research design is used to examine the impact of horizontal skill mismatch, career adaptability and well-being of food delivery gig workers. A survey was conducted using a structured questionnaire. The collected data were analysed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis to assess construct validity and reliability, followed by Structural Equation Modelling in SPSS AMOS.

This research was conducted in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, where several gig work platforms have been identified, including food delivery, cab-hailing and house-cleaning services. This extension of the gig workforce requires state representation for extending social support to workers. In December 2023, the Tamil Nadu state government formed the Tamil Nadu Platform-based Gig Workers Welfare Board. This board is functioning in key districts of Tamil Nadu. Data collection was carried out among 658 gig workers registered with the welfare board in Coimbatore District. With this registered population, the sample size is calculated using the finite sample size table (Cochran, 1977; Krejcie and Morgan, 1970). The sample size is identified as 234 respondents, which is adequate for the study.

The sample size is 234, and systematic random sampling is applied using the sampling formula (k = N/n). The sampling interval is approximately 3, implying that every 3rd person will be sampled in the study (Kothari, 2004). A questionnaire was used for data collection, and 325 questionnaires were collected from October to December 2025. Although the required sample size was fixed at 234, a total of 325 valid responses were included to ensure greater accuracy and representativeness of the data.

Ethical considerations were maintained throughout the study; for data collection, permission was obtained from the relevant government authority. The survey was conducted on a voluntary basis, and respondents were informed of the research purpose before data collection. Participant privacy and confidentiality were assured to the respondent, and the collected data were used exclusively for academic purposes only.

The questionnaire administered to respondents was constructed using measurement scales adopted from established studies. The five-point Likert scale was used for all constructs in the study, with the scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), to ensure consistency and reliability in measuring the variables. First, horizontal mismatch is measured with four items (education–job align, skill relevance, academic–occupational mismatch and training irrelevance), which were developed by (Allen and Van der Velden, 2001) and (Edwards, 1991). Second, career adaptability is validated with a scale examined among Chinese graduates and with 12 items, including future orientation, preparation and growth, self-reliance, independent decision-making, career awareness and exploration and skill development (Song et al., 2023). Finally, workers’ well-being has six dimensions: work responsibility satisfaction, job satisfaction, work enjoyment and enrichment, meaningful work experiences and achievement satisfaction. This scale was developed to measure employee well-being in an organisation (Zheng et al., 2015).

The demographic profile of food delivery workers was analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to compute descriptive statistics and summarise respondents’ characteristics. Structural Equation Modelling was conducted using SPSS AMOS to examine the relationships among the variables.

From Table 1, the demographic data revealed that 85% of the workers were male and only 15% were female. Regarding age, 70% of workers are aged between 18 and 29 years. In the education profile, 13% have a secondary level of education, 16% have a higher secondary level, 26% hold a diploma, and 45% have completed an undergraduate degree or higher. In terms of income, 86% of workers earn 15,000 rupees or more per month. The demographic characteristics of the respondents indicated that 83% were working full-time and 17% were working part-time.

From Table 2, all constructs showed consistent reliability and validity, with Cronbach’s α coefficients ranging from 0.81–0.904. The values obtained are above 0.8, indicating that it is adequate to proceed (Sarstedt et al., 2021). Composite reliability scores ranged from 0.88 to 0.94, exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.70 (Hair, 2014), indicating satisfactory internal consistency of the latent constructs. Average variance extracted ranges from 0.62 to 0.68, indicating that the construct explains a considerable proportion of its indicators’ variance (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). All factor loadings for the construct ranged from 0.67–0.85 (Kline, 2023), indicating that most are above the acceptance value of 0.50.

From Table 3, the measurement model demonstrates an acceptable fit to the data. Chi-square minimum discrepancy divided by degrees of freedom and root mean square error of approximation indicate the good fit of the model. While the comparative fit index, tucker-lewis index and goodness-of-fit index meet the threshold values, root mean square residual is slightly above the recommended range. Overall model fit indices are acceptable and suitable for structural analysis. (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2010).

The proposed relationships are significant, the beta (β) value shows a positive and strengthens the direction of the relationship. The estimated parameters are accurate and consistent with standard error values of 0.059–0.091, which are below 0.10. All paths are statistically significant and supported, as the critical ratio values for all paths exceed 1.96.

Table 1 shows that 71% of workers have completed higher education. Even though working on online food delivery platforms offers young, educated people a source of income and flexibility in their working hours. This reflects jobs that lead to underemployment and limited career opportunities. Overall, this form of gig work leads to unstable employment, no social benefits and no opportunities for promotion for gig workers. Naidoo et al. (2024) and Wood et al. (2019a, 2019b) found that income levels were above the poverty line. These findings indicate that some people have made independent career decisions. This study identifies that 83% of people are taking this job as full-time employment and hence require organisational assistance to manage their skills.

From Table 4, the findings demonstrated a positive relationship (β = 0.278) between horizontal mismatch and career adaptability. This shows that increases in mismatches significantly boost the adaptability of food delivery gig workers. This reflects the experience of skill–job misalignment, which encourages learning, flexibility and proactive coping behaviours within platform-based working conditions. Future research is needed to analyse the individual’s growth through the lens of reflecting, learning and supportive relationships, resulting in personal development and healthier organisations. In platform control algorithms, job assignments are managed, and work performance is evaluated, requiring workers to adapt to task fulfilment. Under such conditions, career adaptability determines employees’ ability to adjust to technological shifts. It helps workers minimise their work stress and results in improved well-being and overall life satisfaction (Carney, 2022; Faria et al., 2024). Alignment of education and skills with the job will pursue a “path with a heart,” benefiting the individual, institution and society through sustainable career progression (Hall, 1996).

According to Table 4, career adaptability (β = 0.275) contributes to improving workers’ well-being. It shows a correlation between career adaptability and well-being among gig workers. With adaptability, workers can handle uncertainty in their work, income fluctuations and even their work under algorithmic control. Career adaptability is a factor that can not only enhance an individual’s resilience but also organisational performance, service quality and long-term productivity. Analysing career adaptability among gig workers will help in understanding their survival, growth and well-being in a non-standard employment context.

From Table 4, it can be seen that the findings have established a positive correlation between horizontal mismatch and the well-being of food delivery gig workers (β = 0.375). As far as well-being research literature is concerned, it is evident from the findings that well-being is an important determinant of worker satisfaction, especially when taking into account skill mismatch as well as overemployment and underemployment at the workplace, which further influences the well-being of workers in the workspace (Ling et al., 2025). This skill mismatch on gig platforms is a threat to the career progress of workers, and gig platforms need to help them. Gig platforms generally help the workers in developing career resilience by making them independent in career progress (Caza et al., 2022).

With an increase in the number of individuals joining the workforce, they prefer flexible working that offers more flexibility compared to conventional employment. As a result of the digitalisation of labour markets, the way employers manage their business practices and recruit workers through projects, task-oriented and short-term job opportunities has undergone a significant change. Concurrently, there are various pros associated with the gig economy for employees, such as flexibility in working hours, the possibility of working on many different platforms and cost-effectiveness in managing platforms. The central issues to deal with are skill underutilization, lack of job security, income variability and uncertainty about the future sustainability of the workforce. Many educated youngsters are looking for a flexible job with greater independence than traditional work. The gig economy has several benefits for the worker, such as flexibility in working hours, the possibility to work on several platforms and lower platform management costs. These factors emphasis not only the need for legal support but also the employability, adaptability to work and sustainable career learning.

Graduates are interested in platform work because of its low entry requirements, autonomy and the opportunity to earn income after leaving school and entering the labour market (Kässi and Lehdonvirta, 2018). Nevertheless, with the level of educational attainment, most young employees are taking up gigs that do not maximise their credentials and hence horizontal skills mismatch (Friedman, 2014). This increased involvement of educated young people in gig employment reflects broader societal changes in the labour market, in which flexibility and digital intermediation are beginning to dominate the characterisation of employment. While flexibility is the primary advantage, a substantial proportion of gig workers rely on gig work as their primary source of income. This often causes them to work for many hours; they engage as full-time workers in the platforms, even though they are bound by non-standard and traditional work arrangements (Rani et al., 2021; Vallas and Schor, 2020).

With regard to India, the main factors responsible for the rise of horizontal mismatch among the gig worker population include the inability to offer training, work regulations, career pathing deficiency and qualification-job mismatch. Increased number of graduates in the market where there are not enough jobs to accommodate the graduates (Mehrotra et al., 2014; Mehta and Singh, 2024). In terms of platform tasks, the employability skills entail acquiring knowledge regarding task efficiency rather than formal education (Anwar and Graham, 2020).

The study illustrated that career adaptability is positively and significantly associated with horizontal mismatch and workers’ well-being. This result is in line with a previous study conducted by Faria et al. (2024). The results of the present study further support the positive relationship between person–job fit and the well-being of food delivery workers. It suggests a need for greater attention to the skills training and organisational support of food delivery workers. Career adaptability also implicitly confirms the need to be intrinsically motivated for positive well-being aspects, such as learning new skills, personal growth and a sense of accomplishment. The literature review conducted among food delivery gig workers in China highlights the same (Kurian and Bindu Madhavi, 2024). Career adaptability contributes to workers’ well-being and mitigates the effects of horizontal mismatch.

The role of vocational institutions in addressing deskilling in gig work can be facilitated with the support of gig platforms. The skill training programs must be tailored based on market requirements, provide follow-up processes and set up a platform for cooperation with educational institutions to realise the training results. It’s important to focus on developing skills over the long term, not just using short-term tactics to avoid low wages and underemployment (Liu and Ge, 2025). Especially those in food delivery are seen negatively due to low human capital, bad reputational impacts and work-related stigma. However, a full-time gig work economy could send the wrong message to both the labour market and long-term career prospects (Song et al., 2025). A joint effort by the government and portals to create a proper representation for these workers.

The V.V. Giri National Labour Institute, an institution under the Ministry of Labour and Employment, plays a highly significant role in research and development and capacity-building activities in both the organised and unorganised sectors. The Institute has launched specific programmes to promote digital literacy, awareness of the Code on Social Security 2020 and knowledge of the decent work standards for gig and platform workers. Among the most remarkable initiatives, there are a virtual consultative workshop on the strengthening of social protection of workers in new types of employment (with particular focus on gig and platform workers), an online training programme on the social security issue of gig and platform workers, and a training programme on the future of work that will help guarantee the stamping of the digital gig economy with decent work and protection. Apart from that, there are measures that can be undertaken by the government that would allow gig workers to develop their mental well-being skills via means such as taking up mental well-being skills training courses (Choudhary and Shireshi, 2022). This is one of the steps towards institutionalisation and development of gig worker skills. In addition to skill upgrading, there is an urgent need to guide this educated workforce towards entrepreneurship opportunities aligned with their educational level and learning experience on the platform. The current policy measures are directed at job skills training to work on the gig platforms. The social security measures addressing the needs of gig workers are not designed to take into account the career development needs of highly educated gig workers, but rather to address gaps in career advancement, occupational mobility and employment sustainability. The labour institution should include programmes in its portfolio to ensure that skills are not wasted and that participants are facilitated by start-up programmes that could improve their living standards, receive financial assistance for financial inclusion and have a long-term path to the advancement of their careers as educated gig workers. As a result, there is a restriction on formal jobs that can be offered within the labour market, compensated for by a policy of fostering entrepreneurship that can accommodate the extra labour force.

This research is limited in several ways. To begin with, the size and nature of the gig worker population remain difficult to define accurately because platform work is informal, with gig workers often floatingly registered. Lack of credible national-level data limits the extent of generalizability and accurate estimation of the gig workforce. However, the study was conducted within a predetermined population. Second, empirical studies that specifically investigate skill mismatch among physical gig employees focus only on food delivery services. The results might not be directly relevant to digital gig workers in high-skill, knowledge-based jobs (e.g. freelancing in IT, design or consulting), where skill interactions, agency and professional career paths are distinct. Subsequent studies need to be large-scale, sector-specific and comparative to better capture differences across the various platforms within the gig segments and to further develop knowledge of skill mismatch and career development in these settings.

The study examined the relationship between career adaptability among food delivery gig workers in India’s platform economy and both horizontal mismatch and well-being. From the results, it is evident that lifelong learning and workplace skills training will strengthen productivity. Theory-oriented curricula, limited industrial collaboration learning and continuous learning barriers are the underlying causes for skill mismatch. Also highlights that quality education can be collaborated with vocational education, promoting gig employment through curriculum reform and inclusive policies to enhance human capital development, stable economic growth and the realisation of Sustainable Development Goals (Alam et al., 2024; Otieno et al., 2024). The research revealed that it has a greater impact on career adaptability, thus improving the well-being of gig workers. Furthermore, career adaptability plays an intermediary role in the relationship between horizontal skill mismatch and work well-being. Therefore, it can be concluded that while gig workers face challenges due to the underutilization of their education and skills, adaptability is an important resource for overcoming occupational challenges.