Individual and social benefits accrue when high school graduation rates increase. One approach to increasing graduation rates is to design learning environments that serve students with disabilities through the 5Cs known to increase school completion: connect, climate, control, curriculum, and caring community. Virtual school programs align with the 5Cs, as demonstrated by virtual schools that have closed achievement gaps and increased completion rates among students with disabilities. Key features of these programs are described, with the national standards for quality online teaching and courses exemplified by each. Strategies are offered for increasing success of students with disabilities in virtual schools.
Traditional schools have been challenged to meet the needs of students who are at risk for dropping out of high school. Recommendations for increasing graduation rates include credit recovery programs, strengthening data systems, increasing engagement in learning, access to tutoring, a stable school environment for mobile students, services for specific disabilities, and a variety of educational media (Shore & Shore, 2009). Online schools seek ways to reach out to struggling students to help ensure their success and are well positioned to directly address the needs of at-risk learners (Rose & Blomeyer, 2007). This article describes the extent of the dropout problem for students with disabilities in the United States, outlines five influences on dropping out, discusses ways that virtual schools are addressing those influences to increase graduation rates, and recommends steps for continuing to improve educational outcomes for students with disabilities.
The growing number of online K-12 education programs known as virtual schools began in the 1990s with programs developed to meet the specialized needs for enrichment experiences and accelerated high school courses such as honors, Advanced Placement, world languages, and International Baccalaureate in smaller schools or schools where qualified teachers were not available. Virtual schooling has since entered the mainstream of American education, serving students across the academic spectrum. In response to mandates to close achievement gaps and raise graduation rates, virtual schools have recently added credit recovery and remediation to their missions. Because this mission is recent for most virtual schools, the research base on online courses for at-risk students and students with disabilities is still developing. Therefore, we discuss the potential for virtual schools to meet the needs of students with disabilities based on research in physical schools for at-risk learners, the research on virtual schooling for the general population of students, and reports of effective practices in the virtual schools that serve students with disabilities.
A large number of students with and without disabilities leave high school without graduating. Nationally, high school completion rates range from 72 to 78%. Specifically, the high school completion rate for young adults 18 though 24 years of age holding a regular high school diploma is 78.2% (Cataldi, Laird, KewalRamani, & Chapman, 2009), while students with disabilities earning a high school diploma, certificate of completion, or a similar document have a high school completion rate of 72% (National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 [NLTS2], 2005). Using status dropout rates, the U.S. rate of students leaving high school without obtaining a diploma or GED is about 9% (U.S. Department of Education, 2009a), representing approximately 1.2 million students per year who do not complete high school or its equivalent by the time they reach the age of 24. Students who drop out are less likely to join the workforce, go to college and become independent adults (Cataldi et al., 2009; NLTS2, 2005). In fact, the Alliance for Excellent Education (2009) projects that if the dropout rate in the 50 largest U.S. cities is cut in half the 299,878 new graduates will increase wages by $4.1 billion annually, a figure representing important human capital because 65% of the graduates will continue their education and will increase tax revenues by $536 million annually.
Encouraging students to stay in school until graduation, thus increasing their ability to contribute to society, puts pressure on schools to engage them until they graduate with a diploma. Pressure is especially felt when working with students with disabilities who as a group have a school completion rate of 72% for all disability categories. This completion rate varies by disability category, ranging from 95% for students who are visually impaired to 56% for students with emotional disturbance (NLTS 2, 2005). Students with disabilities who remain in school until graduation are more likely to attend 2- or 4-year colleges compared to students with disabilities who drop out of school who are more likely to be underemployed and less likely to have checking accounts, have a drivers license, or to participate in community activities (NLTS2, 2005; National Organization on Disability, 2004; Wagner, Newman, Cameto, & Levine, 2005). Based on these data it seems reasonable to consider all students with disabilities as being at risk of dropping out of school; therefore, they can be termed “at-risk.” Although the focus of this article is on at-risk students with disabilities, many of the interventions presented may also be useful for all students at risk for leaving school prior to graduation.
Reasons given by students with disabilities for leaving school prior to graduation include a dislike for school, not getting along with teachers, not thinking that school is preparing them for the future, and poor work habits or attitudes (Dunn, Chambers, & Rabren, 2006; NLTS2, 2005). Additional reasons are high absenteeism, course failure, being older than peers in the same grade, disciplinary problems, not finding a helpful person with whom to connect, lack of support to keep up with content classes, and poor self-esteem (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2007; Dunn et al., 2006; Kortering & Braziel, 1999). Even though students have the ability to achieve they might display less than satisfactory academic achievement (Scanlon & Mellard, 2002). These factors influencing dropout rates can be grouped into the five themes of connect, climate, control, curriculum and caring community (see Figure 1).
The Five Cs of Dropping Out and How Virtual Schools Address Them
Virtual schools have become the school of choice for increasing numbers of at-risk students including students with disabilities (Hassel & Terrel, 2004; Rhim & Kowal, 2008). In response, established virtual schools have changed their practices and new virtual schools have been designed to better meet the needs of at-risk learners. This section describes the 5 Cs in schools that influence a student's risk of dropping out and then it briefly profiles virtual schools that have adopted elements of the 5 Cs in their programs. These data were collected via targeted surveys of virtual school directors. These programs represent a sample of many virtual school programs throughout North America that use the Cs for the success of all of their students.
Connect
Making the connection between school and one's future is supported by the effective practice of providing rigorous and relevant instruction (Institute of Education Sciences, 2008). These connections can be made through transition planning, which is outcome-oriented and assists students and their families to evaluate future goals along with steps to reach these goals. Employing components of transitionbased effective practices (e.g., career development, community experiences, self-determination, interagency collaboration, vocational/ technical education) helps students to make the connection between school-based programs and their future plans (Kohler, 1993; Repetto, Webb, Neubert, & Curran, 2006).
Growing numbers of virtual schools are making explicit connections for students with the workforce and higher education through programs that integrate career experience, community organizations, and other forms of transition planning. The Hope Online Learning Academy Co-op is a public charter school in Colorado that serves disadvantaged students in Grades K-12. More than 75% of its 3,100 students are at-risk. It is developing a senior seminar course to help students in goal setting and planning for life after high school. SIA Tech, the school for integrated academics and technology, is a public charter high school based in California, serving 5,000 students nationwide in a dropout recovery and prevention program. The school focuses on preparing students for success in a technology-based economy, emphasizing life skills and work readiness. It has partnered with Job Corps to provide trade skills to students.
Climate
Providing a safe and caring learning environment can counteract a student's unstable home life. A safe and positive learning environment facilitates opportunities to be successful while setting reasonable academic and social expectations. Students who do not need to spend their energy worrying about being bullied or hallway fights have more time to learn academics (Chandler, Nolin, & Davies, 1995). In addition, showing students that their needs and interests are considered when developing courses and activities helps them to connect to learning. The key to reforming the school climate is whole-school systemic change with teacher and administration support (Christie et al., 2007). Supporting this systemic reform with an evaluative data system will increase its likelihood of success (Institute of Education Sciences, 2008).
Many successful virtual schools base their instructional models on teacher or mentor facilitation of student learning and on mastery learning. Therefore, a climate that emphasizes safety, caring, support, and data-driven instruction is prominent in the approaches of many virtual schools. In fact, the International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL) National Standards for Quality Online Programs and Quality Online Teaching specifically mention safe practices and uses of data to guide and monitor learning (iNACOL, 2008; Pape & Wicks, 2009). Brady Exploration High School is a hybrid online public school in Colorado serving 2,000 students at risk for dropping out in a program designed to prepare students for the workplace and higher education. It has an explicit focus on safety and respect, created in part through professional development initiatives including book study and conferences. Brady uses weekly data reports to guide teachers in their student meetings, interventions, and contracts. Idaho Virtual Academy is a public online charter school serving K-12 students in Idaho. More than 25% of its students are at-risk, as identified using periodic benchmark testing. The test data guide the school staff in creating a team approach that includes instructional coaches and intervention teachers. The school provides small group intervention classes or one-to-one interventions, based on each student's academic data.
Control
Students can be taught to take control of their learning and behaviors by providing targeted academic, social, and behavioral interventions (Cobb, Sample, Alwell, & Johns, 2006; Institute of Education Sciences, 2008). Central to this theme is teaching evidence-based strategies to students to assist them in controlling their learning and behaviors. These are metacognitive strategies that teach students the skills to evaluate academic and behavior situations, provide a response and evaluate the effects of their response (Cobb, et al., 2006; Deshler & Schumaker, 2006). Research indicates students who are self-determined and use learning strategies can positively impact their learning outcomes (Snoeren, Repetto, & Miller, 2007).
As increasing numbers of at-risk students choose a virtual school option, virtual schools are increasing their attention to the behavioral and affective needs of students with specific programs and interventions designed to promote independence. The iNACOL standards for online teaching (2008) include standards for establishing and guiding behavior criteria to maintain academic integrity and appropriate communication. Hope Online has adopted as one of its school goals a decrease in absence, truancy, and other behavioral issues. It reviews causes of these issues and develops action plans to correct them. Brady Exploration has implanted a Response to Intervention program and a life skills program to meet behavioral and emotional needs of students.
Curriculum
Students are more likely to stay engaged in a curriculum that supports their learning with effective teaching strategies and academic supports (Institute of Education Sciences, 2008). Effective teaching strategies increase both student and teacher time on task, ensure successful academic and behavior experiences for students, offer opportunities for students to learn content material, allow for varied student groupings depending on the learning activity, and provide scaffolded learning that moves students towards becoming independent learners (Bost & Riccomini, 2006).
A virtual school program built on an “any pace” model is one that affords the time needed by each student to master the curriculum. Beyond time, virtual schools support student success through a range of scaffolds and grouping strategies and to foster independence in learners. The iNACOL standards for quality online teaching (2008) promote communities of learners that support independence and inclusion of strategies that lead students to identify and monitor their own learning goals. The standards place a high priority on learning through group interaction. At Hope Online, students are placed in a variety of groups and taught skills and strategies for academic success. The Catholic Schools K-12 Virtual School creates differentiated scaffolds for each student, monitored by a teacher-mentor, and supported by an orientation in time management and task prioritizing.
Caring Community
Letting students know they are valued is a feature of caring communities. Providing a caring community is supported by evidence-based practices of having a personalized learning environment and providing students with a mentor (Croninger & Lee, 2001; Institute of Education Sciences, 2008). Educators can personalize learning by asking students what they think of their school experience and understanding that teachers' actions impact students' perception of learning. Once information has been gathered on student perception and teacher impact it should be considered when planning lessons and interacting with students. In addition, educators can mentor students by helping them make the connection between school and their future goals (Dunn et al., 2006).
All human communities should be characterized by the value and care they invest in their members. Schools have a higher standard of value and caring because they serve in loco parentis. In virtual schools, many at-risk students have reached their last educational alternative, making the stakes for success very high. Virtual schools that serve at-risk students use various models of personalization and mentoring to ensure student success in each course as well as in their next educational and professional steps. The iNACOL standards for quality online teaching (2008) focus on personalized feedback for support, growth, and encouragement of students. Chicago Public Schools Virtual High School serves 5000 students, the majority of whom are at-risk. The school's credit recovery program has grown dramatically in recent years. The school leaders identify mentoring as the key to student success. Mentors are trained and are hired because of their passion for student success. The Learn at My Pace (LAMP) Online High School is a program of the school district in Rothsay, Minnesota. LAMP leaders describe positive communication as the way for teachers and mentors to form nurturing relationships with students and parents. These relationships are the foundation for academic interaction in the school. The school has policies to ensure regular, proactive communication.
The 5 Cs represent a comprehensive view of the social, emotional and academic needs of students with disabilities in high school (Hammon, Linton, Smink, & Drew, 2007). They offer a structure for designing schools and courses to improve graduation rates for these students. The efficacy of the 5 Cs in virtual schools has been demonstrated by the schools described here as well as many others that have succeeded in increasing course completion and credit recovery for students with disabilities. The next section overviews general approaches that virtual schools can take to better serve this group of students.
Serving At-Risk Students in Virtual Schools
Low student online course completion rates were reported in the early 2000s, indicating that low-performing students were removed from online courses before completing the course, thereby raising achievement levels in the courses (Bigbie & McCarroll 2000; McLeod, Hughes, Brown, Choi, & Maeda 2005). In addition, online courses tended to attract and serve college-bound, honors, and academically advanced students (Clark, Lewis, Oyer, & Schreiber 2002; Espinoza, Dove, Zucker, & Kozma, 1999). However, online schools have added credit recovery and closing the achievement gap to their missions, and some have reported serving students with identified special needs at the same rate as are served in the public schools (Rose & Blomeyer, 2008; Watson & Gemin, 2008; WestEd, 2008). In recent years, virtual schools have served increasing numbers of students with low-incidence disabilities, students on the autism spectrum, and serious health challenges (Watson, Gemin, Ryan, & Wicks, 2009). These students, in some cases, may be better served in online courses, because adaptive technology is nearly ubiquitous in a virtual school, while social stigmas are reduced.
High proportions of teachers of online courses use teaching practices associated with high student achievement, such as student-centered approaches, collaborative learning, independent inquiry/research, and student discussion (Rice, Dawley, Gasell, & Flores 2008). In addition, there is a strong crossover of effective online teaching strategies to the classroom from teachers who learn to teach online (Lowes, 2008). K-12 distance education has moved away from correspondence and self-study courses toward highly interactive experiences in online communities of learning (Beldarrain 2006; Lehman, Kauffman, White, Horn, & Bruning 2001). Virtual schools have begun using virtual worlds, including Second Life, for increased immediacy and engagement in courses (Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2004).
According to the U.S. Department of Education Institute for Education Statistics data for 2006-2007, 13.6% of all K-12 students being served have a disability (U.S. Department of Education, 2009a). The exact number of students with disabilities being served by virtual school programs has yet to be definitively determined because many virtual schools are supplemental programs, do not grant course credit, and report grades to a students' regular school, which maintains Individual Education Program (IEP) data that are often not shared with the online school. Most states lack comprehensive data systems that connect traditional and virtual school data at the student level.
An IEP is used to plan educational programs for individuals with disabilities as mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 1990, 1997, 2004). A student's IEP is developed by a team generally comprised of parent or guardian, student (must be invited if 16 or older), local education agency representative, general education teacher, special education teacher, person to interpret evaluation results, and other personnel as needed (Flexer, Simmons, Luft, & Baer, 2001). During the meeting the student's strengths, interests, needs, and postsecondary goals are discussed along with their academic performance. Based on the outcomes of the discussion, the team decides on academic goals, supports services, time in general education, participation in state assessments and transition planning (if 16 years or older).
Bear, Kortering, and Braziel (2006) speculate that the key to dropout prevention is the application of skills rather than the acquisition of academic skills; therefore, they advocate using the IEP as a drop out prevention tool. During the IEP meeting students can be given the opportunity to express any concerns they have about school such as trouble completing homework, poor class attendance, or breaking school rules. The team can then plan on ways to address these concerns so that students remain engaged in school.
As an example of a school that has succeeded in serving students with IEPs in an online program, we profile a large Midwestern state virtual school because it is one of the five largest virtual schools in North America and it has a comprehensive data system allowing analysis of enrolled students with IEPs. The number of students with special learning needs being served in this school under IEPs and 504 plans by the school is consistent with the number of students in the larger K-12 population in the state. One problem with determining the exact number of students with disabilities or other at-risk students is that virtual school and online programs most often count the number of enrollments rather than the number of actual students. A single student could be enrolled in multiple courses, accounting for multiple enrollments (Watson et al., 2009). For the 2007-2008 academic year, students being served at the school with an IEP accounted for 9% of all enrollments (1,646/19,064) and students identified as having a 504 plan accounted for 5% of the total number of enrollments (1,026/19,064). In the 2008-2009 academic year, the number of enrollments identified as having an IEP decreased slightly to 7% (1,052/15,744) while the number of enrollments with a 504 plan remained constant at 5% (844/15,744). (See Table 1.) It should be noted that these totals include students identified as Gifted and Talented being served under an IEP as well as students with other, unspecified disabilities. While students with IEPs and 504 plans are being served in virtual and online programs, their primary assignment tends to remain in a public school district that only reports the existence of an IEP or 504 plan to the virtual school program. Data have not been tabulated on the exact number of students or enrollments with specific disabilities. This is an aspect of serving at-risk and disabled students in virtual schools that needs to be investigated further to better determine how to serve these students most effectively.
Virtual school and online education programs can be an effective tool for reaching at-risk students for dropout prevention. In fact, The National Education Technology Plan, published by the U.S. Department of Education, recommends virtual schooling as an option for school choice for disabled students under the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (Hassel & Terrell, 2004; Rice, 2006). However, more research needs to be done in how to assist these students in successful completion of online courses. According to the school's 2007-2008 data, 10% of the enrollments that failed to successfully complete the assigned course were identified as having an IEP (1,035/10,167) and 6% (617/10,167) had a 504 plan. These numbers decreased in 2008-2009 with only 8% (638/7,852) of IEP enrollments and 5% (415/7,852) of 504 enrollments failing to successfully complete the course.
Many courses required for graduation have high enrollments of students with IEPs. A sampling of courses at the school with over 10% of the total enrollment being identified as having an IEP is as follows: algebra I, American government, American history, world history, geography, AP art history, AP biology, drivers education, economics, English I, English II, communication arts, health, middle school math, middle school career education, personal finance, art, children's French, physics, Earth science, introduction to life Sciences, general science, web design, digital photography, and introduction to computers and applications.
As a group, virtual schools have begun to build a record of success including increases in course completion rates, standardized test scores, and graduation rates, accompanied by decreases in course drops, student absences, truancy, or other behavioral issues (Watson & Gemin, 2008). For example, in 2007 the Florida Virtual School's pass rate in online credit recovery courses was over 90%, a success rate due in part to the diagnostic testing of students to tailor pathways through courses to the competencies needed (Watson & Gemin, 2008). At-risk students are represented in state schools across courses, indicating a need for virtual schools and online teachers to address the 5 Cs.
Systemic Changes in VHS
To address the needs of at-risk students, virtual schools have implemented systemic strategies to increase graduation rates and college readiness. These strategies include designated faculty and staff for academic support, differentiating instruction through technology, and specific instructional strategies that support achievement.
Support Staff
In virtual schools, educators and student support professionals include several professional roles: teacher, instructional designer, course facilitator, local key contact, administrator, mentor, technology coordinator, and guidance counselor (Ferdig, Cavanaugh, DiPietro, Black, & Dawson, 2009). Each of these individuals affects student success and requires an understanding of the range of students taking online courses as well as effective practices for working with students in the online environment. This set of expectations requires a unique skill set not typically developed in mainstream teacher education and professional development programs.
Differentiation in Online Courses
Virtual schools often offer flexible pacing for students to ensure that each student has the time and support needed to master the content in a course. Online courses may include individual tutoring, small group interactions, computer-based tutoring programs, exam review programs, and peer coaching (iNACOL, 2009; Rhim & Kowal, 2008). Online courses offer flexibility to students who need expanded learning time to master complex content, an approach that has shown success in innovative classroom-based and online schools (Cavanaugh, 2009; Rhim & Kowal, 2008).
Online Instructional Strategies and Program Practices
A hallmark of virtual schools is the affordance for flexibility in enrolling students and in their pacing within courses. Open/rolling enrollment allows students to begin an online course at any time and to complete the course on an individualized timeline, thereby earning credits as students' needs and abilities allow. Once a student is enrolled in an online course, measures must be in place to ensure that the course is fully accessible to the student. Students need ongoing access to the technology necessary for accomplishing coursework (Roblyer, Davis, Mills, Marshall, & Pape, 2008), in particular highly mobile students in immigrant families or families in poverty (Watson & Gemin, 2008). Online materials present unique challenges for students with disabilities, requiring attention to web accessibility and universal design for learning principles (Keeler & Horney, 2007; Rhim & Kowal, 2008; Simoncelli & Hinson, 2008).
Recommendations
Professional Development
In keeping with the national standards for quality online teaching and course design, frequent, timely academic feedback is a central strategy in online courses (iNACOL, 2008). Increased contact and communication among teachers, support staff, students, and families is important enough that the majority of virtual schools have begun to codify communication expectations in school policy (Watson et al., 2009). Such policies require teachers to contact parents and students in specific time intervals and some policies specify the method of contact and the content of the communication.
For these strategies to be effective, teachers need preparation and professional development to acquire skills in working online with at-risk students. Much has been written about best practices in online education and accessibility issues for online courses (Fichten et al., 2009). Using such principles as the Universal Design for Learning for instructional design and usability complying with World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) guidelines for accessibility, virtual school programs have made courses more accommodating for at-risk students (Rose & Blomeyer, 2007; Watson & Gemin, 2008; Simoncelli & Hinson, 2008). These principles have been proven effective in increasing the quality of learning for all students, not just those with disabilities (Bricout, 2001; Pisha & Coyne, 2001). Like the majority of regular classroom teachers, most virtual school teachers have little or no experience working with students with disabilities, let alone in an online setting (Rice et al., 2008). Current professional development programs for online educators focus on accessibility issues such as captioning media and making web pages accessible for screen reading software; they do not focus on understanding the unique needs of students with disabilities as learners and how their disabilities affect their learning (Fichten et al., 2009; Weir, 2005). Given the nature of the virtual school, online teachers tend to work in isolation without the benefit of resource personnel that would typically be available in a traditional school (Southern Regional Education Board, 2009). In a national survey conducted in 2008, virtual school teachers reported higher needs for training in modifying, customizing, and/or personalizing activities and in intervention and/or enrichment of the curriculum than the brick-and-mortar teachers in the sample did (Rice et al., 2008). An online program of professional development in special education covering the disability groups shown to be enrolling in virtual school programs would assist virtual school teachers in understanding the needs of their students, how they are accommodated in a regular classroom setting, and how they could be accommodated in an online learning environment. In fact, understanding the needs of students with disabilities and other at-risk students is included in the standards for professional development described by the Southern Regional Education Board (2009). While there are no hard data as to which disability groups are most likely to enroll in online courses, anecdotal information indicates that students with learning disabilities and attention deficits as well as the lower incidence disabilities of visual impairment, hearing impairment, and physical or other health impairments are enrolling in virtual school programs across the United States. An online program of professional development in modular format could cover background information on each of these disability areas, provide guidance to instructors in modifying lessons in their specific content area to the needs of the specific disability, help teachers to locate additional resource materials, and link them to a mentor-teacher who is qualified and experienced in both special education and teaching and learning online.
Online Teaching Standards
The role of special educators is to develop and teach individualized curriculum, plan individual student programs through the IEP, teach learning strategies, and assess students (Council for Exceptional Children [CEC], 2009). Professional standards developed through CEC, the professional organization for special educators, list the necessary skills for special educators to work with students with various disabilities (e.g., learning disabilities, emotional and behavioral disorders) and across disabilities (e.g., content standards, transition specialists). Standards for the technology specialists cut across all disabilities areas. In this set of standards, technology is viewed as assistive or instructional technology affecting the individual or the system. Therefore, the standards address evaluation of instructional computer programs or assessing students to match the correct assistive technology. Although these are important standards there is no mention of skills needed to develop or provide accommodations for virtual school program. Since the CEC Professional Standards guide teacher preparation programs and certification one can conclude that virtually schooling has a limited emphasis in the preparation of special education teachers.
Online/Blended Teaching Endorsement
States with significant public virtual schools programs have begun requiring endorsements to teacher certifications to qualify teachers to teach online. Such endorsement programs should include in-service or credit course experiences addressing the national standards for quality online teaching, as well as practicum or internship experiences with practicing online teachers.
Professional Development for Online Teaching
Professional development is needed for virtual teachers in meeting the needs of students with disabilities, identifying at-risk students, and differentiating instruction, topics that are not part of the current professional development programs for the majority of virtual teachers (Rice & Dawley, 2007; Rice et al., 2008). Professional development is also needed for tutors, facilitators, counselors and other school support staff who work with at-risk students. The path of professional learning should begin with educator and administrator preparation programs, including internship and practicum experiences in virtual schools and with at-risk and students with disabilities as a requirement for professional educator and leader certification.
Comprehensive Data Systems
Strengthening and integrating comprehensive data systems should be part of the instructional design and teaching processes in virtual schools. Data illuminate relationships among teachers, students, content, and interactions in courses that inform and guide teaching practices (Ferdig et al., 2009). Such data systems must identify students with Individual Educational Plans so online schools can address their needs and monitor their progress as it results from various supports, designs, and practices. In this way, the virtual schooling community can aggregate data across school models to learn how best to meet the needs of a wider range of students. Course success and program quality in online courses must be tied to measures beyond course grades, including tests based on national standards, to ensure that students have achieved meaningful learning (Cavanaugh & Blomeyer, 2007).
All online courses must be made accessible to all students. Over 13% of K-12 students receive special education services and they are increasingly drawn to online courses to meet their unique needs (Keeler, Richter, Anderson-Inman, Horney, & Ditson, 2007; Rhim & Kowal, 2008). Research is needed into the design of learning environments that support at-risk students, in particular the balances among online and face-to-face time, the support relationships with adults, affective and academic supports, parent/family support, and the contribution of expanding learning time (Cavanaugh & Blomeyer, 2007; Cavanaugh, Barbour, & Clark, 2009).
Conclusion
More states are offering online courses for high school students, allowing students with and without disabilities the opportunity to be more in control of their learning (Archambault et al., 2009). The newness of virtual education offers the opportunity to build components into these programs that can foster student retention. In this paper we discussed several virtual high school programs that are already incorporating many of the 5 Cs of effective dropout prevention. A few of the strategies for student retention in school incorporated by these programs are: varying assignments, groupings and modes of learning in courses; connecting content to real world and skills students need once they leave school; using mentors and individual contact with students; and offering professional development to ensure teachers use effective teaching strategies in courses. As these model programs become more prevalent, it is important to research the effectiveness of the programs as a whole and of the individual strategies in order to identify evidenced-based practices for drop out prevention in virtual schools. The approaches described here may be found in new, hybrid learning environments; we believe they may be found equally effective for engaging at-risk students who attend virtual schools.
As these evidenced-based practices are identified they need to be incorporated into professional development programs. Such programs offered through online courses, certification programs, and workshops can be geared toward virtual teachers and special education teachers. Ultimately, working with at-risk students with disabilities in virtual schools needs to become part of a system-wide shift in curriculum incorporating evidence-based practices for dropout prevention.
Students who stay in school until graduation are more likely to earn more, pay higher taxes, and contribute to the human capital of our country (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2009; Cataldi et al., 2009; NLTS2, 2005). Therefore, as virtual schooling becomes part of the mainstream culture of American schools it is crucial to incorporate evidence-based practices to engage students in school so they remain until graduation.
