The long-term effect and influence of educational experiences on K-12 learners necessitates empirical research of innovations and discoveries in the field prior to their implementation in the classroom. Online distance education is such an innovation because demand and enthusiasm for its implementations continues to grow. However, more rigorous empirical research remains a commonly cited need by scholars in the field. A conceptual research framework, which could lead to the development of other theoretical frameworks, may advance the field of online K-12 distance education. In this article we propose a categorized conceptual research framework with 9 components: learners, teachers, materials, delivery, methodology, evaluation, administration, international, and history. A survey of current research provides the foundation for the framework categories. The categories lend structure to the framework allowing relationships among concepts to be defined and discovered as well as providing a direction for future research and investigations.
Introduction
As online distance education continues to grow, so does the need for empirically based information for educators, administrators, and policymakers to use in order to make deliberate and calculated decisions about its adoption. Many scholars have called for empirical research in online distance education to enhance and validate its use. A conceptual framework, which may lead to the development of many theoretical frameworks, can enhance online distance education research by explaining, “either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied—the key factors, concepts, or variables—and the presumed relationships among them” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 18). With a conceptual framework, establishing a common lexicon, empirically extrapolating research about adult students to apply to K-12 students, and focusing on the design and analysis of online distance education are but a few of the advances that may be realized. In this article, we introduce the Framework for Research in Online K-12 Distance education. The framework has nine components: learners, teachers, materials, delivery, methodology, evaluation, adminis tration, international, and history. The framework can be used to connect researchers with existing knowledge in the field, gain a better understanding of key factors, concepts and variables, outline possible gaps in the research and provide a foundation for new research.
Growth of K-12 Distance Education
Distance education has changed significantly from its origin in correspondence courses (Nasseh, 1997) to the innovations of the past several decades, which saw the introduction of televised lectures in the distance education classroom (Vedantham & Breeden, 1995) to courses delivered completely online and accessed by a variety of desktop and handheld devices (Davidson, 2011). Even though distance education initially grew relatively slowly since the first correspondence courses, the more recent and widespread use of technical advances—the Internet as a primary conduit, online tools and software as delivery vehicles, and social media components for interaction—have contributed significantly to its exponential growth in recent years (Archambault & Crippen, 2009; Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Ruth, 2010). The growth continues with estimates varying widely, yet displaying a clear indication of tremendous expansion. In 2007, Picciano and Seaman estimated that approximately 700,000 K-12 students were engaged in online courses in 2005-2006, and these data were collected from public schools only. In 2009, Archambault and Crippen noted a 47% increase in enrollments between 2007 and 2009. More current figures from Ruth indicate that more than a million of the 63 million primary school students in the United States are taking an online course. Also, “roughly one college student in four is now taking at least one online course and one in 20 at the K-12 level” (Ruth, 2010, p. 79). Furthermore, some states (Virginia, Alabama, Florida, Idaho, and Michigan) are taking this trend further by implementing education policies mandating that K-12 students experience some form of online learning prior to graduation (Lawrence, 2012). As the growth trend continues, more types of students are included in online distance education courses and they become more inclusive. Our challenge as scholars, educators, researchers, and advocates for students is to carefully and effectively harness the growth and power of online K-12 distance education for the benefit of learners.
The Need for Research to Support the Growth
As online distance education grows, so does the need for more research to advance the field (Bernard, Abrami, Borokhovski, Wade, & Tamim, 2009; Black, Ferdig, & DiPietro, 2008; Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek, 2011, Smouse, 2005; Staker, 2011) or even more meaningful syntheses of the current research (Bethel & Bernard, 2010). In surveying the literature, the most common call for research was a general suggestion to examine cases and studies in an empirical fashion and with a critical eye (Bernard, Abrami, Lou, & Borokhovski, 2004; Cavanaugh, Barbour, & Clark, 2009). For example, after an exhaustive meta-analysis of literature in the field, Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, and Jones (2009) call for rigorous empirical study in online education. Also, some researchers, like Barbour and Reeves (2009), suggest vigorous research of any kind should be done (instead of focusing heavily on experience-based studies). They say, “the benefits of virtual schooling have been largely reported based upon the perceptions of those involved in the delivery of virtual schooling and not based upon robust research” (Barbour & Reeves, 2009, p. 407).
Specific suggestions for more rigorous research are common in the field as well. Dickson (2005) suggests the use of “experimental research using planned variations (such as use of simulations, discussion, chat rooms) within [specific] courses to rigorously test hypotheses and enable continuous quality improvement” (p. 60). Elluminate (2006) suggests more rigorous study in the area of financial benefits. Also, in a study by Muilenburg and Berge (2005), the researchers were readily able to find relationships among social interaction, course success, and online course experience, but unable to determine causation because of the structure of the study. Therefore additional studies focused on causation might yield impressive and important results for online K-12 learners. Also notable are the many studies suggesting rigor could be increased by repeating past studies using larger or more diverse groups of subjects (Black, DiPietro, Ferdig, & Polling, 2009; Edwards, Perry, & Janzen, 2011; Fenton & Ward-Watkins, 2007; Hur & Hara, 2007; Simpson, 2004).
As online distance education expands and takes a more important role in the lives of many K-12 learners, it logically becomes more inclusive, providing an educational experience for many more types of learners. While personality and learning characteristics may define what makes a good online learner, more interesting may be research involving how to make online distance education work for learners who don't have the key characteristics to be successful online—perhaps with intervention (Simpson, 2004) and continuous personal help (Archambault et al., 2010; Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Watson & Gemin, 2008).
Increases in the popularity of online distance education also necessitate changes in administration and policy. Education innovations cannot be implemented without full understanding of their impact on learners. Education reform choices have a profound and lasting impact on all learners, and their adoption must be deliberate, calculated and based on research.
Why Use a Framework for Research?
Miles and Huberman (1994) defined a conceptual framework as a visual or written product, one that “explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied—the key factors, concepts, or variables—and the presumed relationships among them” (p. 18). Also, Maxwell (2005) suggests, “experience, prior theory and research, pilot studies, and thought experiments are the four major sources of the conceptual framework” (p. 63). It is in the spirit of these scholars and all other users and developers of conceptual frameworks in social science research that the Framework for Research in Online K-12 Distance Education was developed.
A conceptual framework will advance the field of online K-12 distance education in many ways:
A conceptual framework will advance the field by furthering the establishment of a common lexicon. It is generally understood in the current research that we must discuss online distance education with a common language and terms so we can move forward with valid and complete comparisons (Archambault & Crippen, 2009; Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Bernard et al., 2004; Cavanaugh, Gillan, Kromrey, Hess, & Blomeyer, 2004). To further argue the point, researchers need standardization across all aspects of online distance education—from the terms used to describe the process to the curriculum and teacher training. It is difficult to make assessments based on large quantities of data when the language used to describe the field varies so greatly. A common codebook or heuristic description system is needed (Cavanaugh et al., 2004; Cavanaugh et al., 2009; Picciano & Seaman, 2007). This is a compelling call to action, and the results will benefit researchers for years to come.
A conceptual framework will advance the field by highlighting cases where empirical extrapolation or expansion of research about adult students may apply to K-12 students. Much of the research in the field of online distance education focuses on adult learners, and adults learn fundamentally differently from K-12 students (Barbour & Reeves, 2009). However, studies about adult learners are still quite valuable to researchers focusing on K-12 learners. Through the extrapolation or expansion of studies about adult learners, researchers might better understand K-12 learners as well. Many current studies call for an expansion of the research into K-12 students (Allen, Bourhis, Burrell, & Mabry, 2002; Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Means et al., 2009; Smith, Clark, & Blomeyer, 2005) or into older students in general (Rice, 2006, 2009). Preserving advances in research about adult learners and extrapolating or expanding the results to K-12 learners will benefit the field by using all the available research.
A conceptual framework will advance the field by focusing the design and analysis of online distance education and identifying areas of opportunity. For example, a conceptual framework may bring interdisciplinary theorists to online distance education research by recognizing their contribution in a focused body of work. Specifically, Huett, Moller, Foshay, & Coleman, all experts in instructional design, suggest partnerships in a framework collective that recognizes instructional design's possible contributions to the research. Additionally, “adapting the learner-centered principles of the American Psychological Association (1995, 1997) may be a starting point for exploring the cognitive and motivational processes involved in [online distance education]” (Bernard et al., 2004, p. 192). In this way, a conceptual framework may focus design and analysis in interdisciplinary partnerships contributing to a focused body of work.
Distance Education Framework Diagram
Figure 1 is a graphical representation of the Framework for Research in Online K-12 Distance Education. Perhaps most notable is the equal importance given to each of the nine components of the framework. Even though learners are central to everything educators, researchers, and policymakers do, they are interwoven with all other components of the framework. A learner, by definition, must have a teacher, curriculum, a history, et cetera. All parts of the framework are central to research in the field of online distance education.
Distance Education Research Framework
The Framework for Research in Online K-12 Distance Education has nine components: learners, teachers, materials, delivery, methodology, evaluation, administration, international and history. Within each Framework component, we discuss current and future research with the focus on establishing a common lexicon, empirically extrapolating research about adult students to apply to K-12 students, and focusing on the design and analysis of online distance education.
Learners
Introduction. Learners are of tremendous importance to research and investigation in distance education because education programs exist primarily to serve learners. Distance education programs strive to reach many types of learners—at-risk learners, disabled learners, advanced academic learners, rural learners, and more. Researchers identified success traits such as independence, intrinsic motivation, highly developed technology skills, and strong time-management skills among online learners. As such, teachers are challenged to assist students in developing success traits so that all learners can succeed in distance education (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Bernard et al., 2004; Dickson, 2005; Kirby, Sharpe, Bourgeois, & Greene, 2010; Rice, 2006; Rice, 2009; Roblyer, 2005; Simonson et al., 2011; Smith et al., 2005). Online learning class size and development of social skills in distance education are all part of the learner section of the Framework.
Key Factors and Concepts. Some of the key factors and concepts for research about learners are:
what types of students do well in an online learning environment and what types of students do poorly (success traits)?;
online learning and at-risk learners;
online learning and learners with disabilities;
online learning and advanced academic students (gifted & talented);
learner satisfaction;
development of social skills in online learning;
online learning in rural environments; and
online learning class size.
Current Research. Current research on distance education learners indicate positive outcomes with at-risk students (Archambault et al., 2010), students with disabilities (Muller, 2009; Rhim & Kowal, 2008, Smouse, 2005), and rural learners (Kimmel & Grubbs, 2000; Spears & Tatroe, 1997; Vedantham & Breeden, 1995, Watson, 2007). The current research confirms speculation that advanced academic learners often perform relatively well in a distance education environment (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Kirby et al., 2010; Vedantham & Breedam, 1995; Watson, 2007). Students who perform well have been shown to develop success traits essential for positive outcomes in distance education.
Current research of the development of success traits converge on independence, but belief in the ability to succeed, comfort in taking risks, familiarity with technology, and other support traits are important as well (Muilenberg & Berge, 2005; Roblyer, 2005; Ronsisvalle & Watkins, 2005; Simpson, 2004; Smith et al., 2005). Additionally, the development of social skills in distance education is crucial as students prepare to operate as global citizens in our collaborative world. Studies discovering student social success vary (Sivin-Kachala & Bialo, 2009), and the discoveries are sometimes second to the main research (as in O'Dwyer, Carey, & Kleiman, 2007). Of particular concern was a study by Muilenberg and Berge (2005). The study identified lack of social interaction as a barrier to online learning. In general, social skills continue to be an area of continuing questioning for distance educators (Ronsisvalle & Watkins, 2005).
Future Research. Researchers have already noted needs for further studies in the areas of disabled and rural students (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Dickson, 2009; Kimmel & Grubbs, 2000; Muller, 2005; Rice, 2009; Spears & Tatroe, 1997; Vedantham & Breeden, 1995).
Success traits are also often identified for more research in the field (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Dickson, 2005; Rice, 2006). Some researchers recommend a continuation of research exploring motivational and learning styles as factors that influence greater academic achievement for all groups of learners in the online/computer-enhanced curriculum (Allen et al., 2002; Chen, Ko, Kinshuk, & Taiya, 2004; Oliver, Osborne, & Brady, 2009; Smouse, 2005). Additionally, technology and digital learning have the potential to transcend difficulties in delivering quality instruction, and they may be employed in the future to close achievement gaps in learning among all learners (Schwarzbeck & Wolfe, 2012).
In their study, Kirby et al. (2010) discuss the long-term advantages of online high school students who asserted a certain amount of selfselection in the decision to take online classes—often the high-achieving and/or already successful and college-bound students are the ones who choose to take online classes. Therefore, a study of the same structure could be done of students who did not have the choice to take online classes—perhaps creditrecovery, at-risk, incarcerated, rural, or disabled students could be studied.
Unique needs and challenges for the learner section of the Framework are program completion, learner satisfaction, and others. Also included in this area is the importance of social skill development. As the field continues to evolve, with technology in social networking playing a large role in the student experience, social skill development will remain a key area of concern and an opportunity for important research. These investigations will advance the field considerably. Particularly, Rice suggests researchers investigate the social and cognitive aspects of distance education and their effect on knowledge construction (Rice, 2006). Studies of perceived authenticity in social interactions may be interesting as well.
Research in distance education impacts a wide variety of learners. Research focusing on different populations of learners (such as at-risk learners, academically advanced learners, learners with disabilities, and rural groups) will help scholars discover and create innovative ways to facilitate success across the national education system. Issues affecting learners such as dropout prevention, development of social skills, and learner satisfaction are just a few of the key factors and topics in the learner component of the framework.
Teachers
Introduction. Researchers widely recognize the specialized skills necessary to teach online distance education courses. Integral to the idea of specialized skills is the recognition that teaching online distance education courses is much more complex than simply taking face-to-face material and putting it online for student consumption (Black et al., 2009; Tucker, 2007; U.S. Department of Education, 2004). The unique skill set of the distance education teacher can be measured through evaluation and enhanced through professional development and teacher preparation. While learners are at the core of the Framework, teachers are important as well because quality teaching is crucial to quality learning in any environment—online, face to face, or other venues.
Key Factors and Concepts. Key factors and concepts for research about teachers are:
preparing teachers to teach in an online learning environment;
continued professional development for online teachers;
evaluation of online teachers;
unique needs and challenges for online teachers; and
student teaching (internships/mentoring) in online learning.
Current Research. Current research of teachers in distance education focuses on the key factors and concepts of preparing teachers to teach in an online learning environment, teacher evaluation, teacher professional development, unique needs and challenges, and student teaching in the online distance education environment. Though some teachers find the day-to-day classroom management issues such as disruptions and side conversations lessened in the virtual classroom, the task of facilitation and engagement remains. However, the virtual classroom offers opportunities to for teachers to use technology in unique ways, and their teaching can be enhanced and evaluated according to its use.
Teacher evaluation in distance education should take into account the virtual classroom where the teacher needs pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge, and technological knowledge—not of the helpdesk variety—but of what technology can uniquely deliver for students in the online context (DiPietro, Ferdig, Black, & Preston, 2008). Teacher evaluation in the current research is often included as part of a larger study (Black et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2005; Southern Regional Education Board, 2006; Tucker 2007) where curriculum and best practices are discussed as well. Evaluating an online teacher's ability to use technology for the learner's benefit is a unique challenge in online distance education.
From enjoyment of flexible work schedules (Archambault & Crippen, 2009) to frustrations with students who will not fully engage with the material (Watson & Gemin, 2008), online distance education teachers confront many unique needs and challenges. Some challenges prescribe teacher interventions, so the student might complete the program (Simpson, 2004), and others include professional development opportunities, such as developing online mentoring and peer relationship-building facilities among novice teachers as well as well as planned observation in the online classroom (National Education Association, 2006). Some needs and challenges are similar to face-to-face classrooms (such as cheating). However, many needs and challenges are unique to online distance education, and can be managed through learning opportunities such as professional development classes and peer relationships with like-minded teachers.
Current research in teacher professional development in distance education falls into two categories: (1) professional development offered in a distance education format for face-to-face teachers (Fenton, 2007; Hur & Brush, 2009; Hur & Hara, 2007; Kitsantas & Talleyrand, 2005; O'Neal, Jones, Miller, Campbell, & Pierce, 2007), and (2) professional development offered exclusively for teachers to teach in a distance education environment, which emphasizes unique needs and challenges of teaching online and at a distance (Ardichvili, 2008; Elluminate 2006; Oliver et al., 2009; Rice & Dawley, 2007; Rice & Dawley, 2009; Salvati, 2001).
Of particular interest in the area of professional development were comments by Rice and Dawley (2007) who noted most models of professional development use a stage framework where the teacher passes through stages from novice to expert via experience and professional development. Another particularly unique study of student teaching and internships in distance education is from researchers O'Dwyer et al. (2007), in whose study an experienced online mathematics teacher mentored a classroom teacher to become qualified to teach the course. This study ties nicely into discussions concerning the growing importance of online student teaching (National Education Association, 2006; Rice & Dawley, 2009; Watson, 2007).
Future Research. Future research recommended by a number of scholars suggests focuses on teacher evaluation, teacher professional development, and unique needs and challenges. As well, to date, student teaching in distance education has not received the attention it has in face-to-face teacher education, and it is an integral part of preparing new teachers for the classroom. Therefore, research of student teaching in distance education would also be a valuable addition to the field.
Future research in the evaluation of online teachers is a growing area of education policy research (Archambault & Crippen, 2009). Black et al. (2008) urge researchers to develop assessments to evaluate all components of the distance education process, including teachers. They, along with other scholars, suggest researchers look to other fields to discover innovative ways to evaluate teachers (Dickson, 2005; Hess, 2010). In addition, Black et al. suggest moving beyond data collection into intervention where educators can truly impact learners. Teachers might learn about these types of interventions through professional development or peer relationships with other teachers.
Offering professional development in a distance education format for face-to-face teachers provides a convenient way for teachers to update and expand their skills (Fenton & Ward-Watkins, 2007). Research in this area is primarily recommended to expand the scholarship by using larger sample sizes in future studies (Kitsantas & Tallyrand, 2005).
Further research in professional development offered exclusively for online distance education teachers includes such areas of study as pedagogy, developing content, and improving technological knowledge (Archambault et al., 2009). Pedagogical concerns are many, including meeting the unique needs of K-12 online teachers, skill progression, and variations in impact on teaching practice—so, the links between professional development practices and student outcome could be explored as well (Rice, 2009). Within professional development and teacher education falls the urgent need to prepare teachers to teach in an online learning environment (Archambault et al., 2009; Cavanaugh et al., 2004; Cavanaugh et al., 2009; Dickson, 2005; and Rice, 2009).
It seems the more research is done in this category, the more scholars are motivated to discover. Efforts to understand and define the knowledge, skills and dispositions of successful online teachers as well as understanding how their pedagogical strategies match learner outcomes and learner levels of thinking (simple versus higher order thinking) is a compelling area of future exploration (Rice, 2009; Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Black et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2004; Schlager & Fusco, 2003; Simpson, 2004). Classroom management and group dynamics (and facilitation) in the online classroom are also compelling future areas of research (DiPietro et al., 2008; Kanuka, Rourke, & Laflamme, 2007; Kimmel & Grubbs, 2000; Ronsisvalle & Watkins, 2005) as well as online teacher communities where teachers can use social networks to gather information and build professional relationships with like-minded people (Hur & Brush, 2009; Hur & Hara, 2007).
Materials
Introduction. Materials and curriculum are an important part of the Framework because of their role in planning and delivering information, so students are free to create knowledge. Course content, topics, delivery vehicles (software and course management systems [CMS]), and assessment tools create both opportunities and barriers in online distance education.
Key Factors and Concepts. Key factors and concepts about materials are:
online learning curriculum materials design and evaluation;
assessments in online learning;
what topics can be taught well in an online learning environment and what topics cannot be taught so well?;
software in online learning;
barriers to the development of online learning materials; and
online learning CMS use.
Current Research. Current research of materials in distance education focuses in the area of curriculum materials design and evaluation. Constructivist-based teaching techniques (Dickey, 2004; Herring, 2004; Smith et al., 2005) where multiple approaches to knowledge development are employed are explored in depth. Additionally, researchers have developed a keen understanding that some face-to-face strategies do not translate well to the online classroom (DiPietro et al., 2008). Use of instructional design, specific case studies, and an understanding of education public policy are critical aspects of the current body of research.
Much research in materials and curriculum design has been conducted in the area of instructional design. Researchers seek to understand how instructional design can be applied in distance education, and what important knowledge can be gleaned from the field. Instructional design is fairly mature in its examination of techniques helpful to learners (Huett et al., 2008; International Association for K-12 Online Learning, 2007; Kranch, 2008). Current research explores the application of instructional design techniques to distance education.
Other research in materials and curriculum design are several case studies: (a) Dickey explored the use of blogs in the curriculum of a distance education course as a way to add socialization and reduce isolation (2004), (b) McCombs, Ufnar, and Shepherd explored student satisfaction with curriculum in a program called The Virtual Scientist, which is a K-12 science enrichment program offered by the Vanderbilt University Center for Scientific Outreach (2007), and (c) O'Dwyer et al., explored an online algebra class, which was compared to a similar face-to-face class to explore effectiveness of the curriculum, among other research questions (2007).
Other research includes pedagogical frameworks for effective curriculum and components of asynchronous learning (Chen et al., 2004). Theoretical applications in the current research are the perceived value of learning activities and curriculum using activity theory and critical value factors of curriculum activities (Yair, 2008). Theory-based curriculum development is an invaluable part of materials and their development.
As important as curriculum development is, evaluation and assessment are critical as well (Watson, 2005, 2007). Researchers will be interested to know that Watson (2005) raises a critical education public policy issue with respect to distance education and curriculum when we are reminded that distance education curriculum is evaluated using standards developed for face-to-face learning. With further maturation of the field of online distance education, policymakers and researchers may partner to discover better ways to evaluate online distance education materials.
The current area of curriculum materials design and development recognizes that various online learning implementation practices may have differing effectiveness for K-12 learners than they do for older students, where much of the current research resides (Means et al., 2009). As the research expands to include more K-12 curriculum, opportunities may arise to enhance curriculum design evaluation as well, so it is specialized to online instruction.
Future Research. Future research in instructional design techniques and specific software/CMS use is likely to advance the domain of distance education. In addition, particularly compelling is the discovery of which topics of instruction are best taught in an online environment and which are best taught face to face. The current research field is deficient in the area of content topics.
Further research in instructional design may impart new ideas in curriculum development (Barbour & Reeves, 2009). As such, a partnership between instructional design professionals/scholars and K-12 education research may allow the opportunity to build a “cumulative and unified base of knowledge for e-learning and the field of instructional design” (Huett et al., 2008, p. 66). In addition to specific partnerships, course content in general might be studied where researchers analyze and identify design elements essential to student success and satisfaction, and they might gain a better understanding of how to translate the learning process into interactive design strategies that can improve student outcomes and lead to a successful and satisfying experience (Archambault et al., 2009; Cavaluzzo, 2004; Rice, 2006). Some of these strategies might be the use of video streaming, electronic presentations, and the use of narrative without enhancements (O'Neal et al., 2007). Learning to use new technology in curriculum development will likely be an evolving and growing area of research as new platforms and applications become available.
Research in specific software and CMS from a practical as well as theoretical perspective is also needed in the field. Learners benefit from balanced investments in and use of new technology (Cavaluzzo, 2004; Kimmel & Grubbs, 2000), research in the use of media and technology in effective and creative ways, adaptation of successful classroom practices to applications in distance education venues, and management of group processes and constructivist learning environments (Barbour & Reeves, 2009). In addition, understanding the practical needs, and theoretical underpinnings of those needs, will help researchers suggest essential CMS features, which can help engineers build a more flexible, easy, and convenient learning environment for teachers and students (Archambault et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2004).
Scholars suspect some topics are easier and better taught in online distance education than others (DiPietro et al., 2008), but most of the suggestions are speculation at this point. (O'Dwyer et al., 2007). Discovery or ranking of topics in order of ease and quality of the distance learning outcomes would be a valuable addition to the field.
Delivery
Introduction. A wide variety of delivery methods are used in distance education. Delivery method research is important to the Framework because of its dependence on available and new technologies. This brings about areas of needed research like investigations into the relatively new acceptance of hybrid delivery methods (DiPietro et al., 2008).
Key Factors and Concepts. Key factors and concepts about delivery are:
blended/hybrid delivery (combination of online and face-to-face learning);
Completely online learning versus blended/hybrid learning versus face-to-face learning; and
Synchronous versus asynchronous online learning.
Current Research. The current research is comprised of many studies where learning takes place only online (Chen et al., 2004; Dickey, 2004; DiPietro et al., 2008; Huett et al., 2008, and many more). However, more rare are the studies comparing online learning to blended learning, or face-to-face learning (Allen et al., 2002; Archambault & Crippen, 2009; Cavanaugh et al., 2004; Cavanaugh et al., 2009; DiPietro et al., 2008; Picciano & Seaman, 2007; Rice, 2006). There is a general call to end comparisons between online learning and face-to-face learning (Abrami, Bernard, Bures, Borokhovski, & Tamim, 2011; Allen et al., 2002; Bernard, Abrami, Borokhovski, Wade, Tamim, Surkes, Bethel, & Clement, 2009; Rice, 2006), but it appears the research has not yet been exhausted on the topic.
Future Research. Many researchers have explored whether online distance education is comparable to face to face, and it is generally understood that there is little or no difference. However, distance education is available in many combinations of delivery methods. Blended and hybrid environments (DiPietro et al., 2008) are sometimes possible in distance education, and could be particularly advantageous or disadvantageous over single-delivery systems. Future research into blended environments might be combined with research into synchronous and asynchronous delivery to discover which method achieves the best learner outcomes. Another facet of this research involves examining how delivery methods affect different types of learners.
Methodology
Introduction. The wide focus of the methodology section of the Framework makes it a convenient residence for general success factors and barriers in online learning. In addition, two particularly important areas—interaction and engagement—are part of this section of the Framework. Interaction and engagement are crucial to success in any distance education program because students must engage with course actors and/or content through meaningful interactions with other students, course content, or instructor to build and create knowledge.
Key Factors and Concepts. Key factors and concepts about methodology are:
interaction in online learning;
engagement in online learning; and
success factors and barriers in online learning for student, teacher, parent, and administrator.
Current Research. Not surprisingly because of its importance to the field, studies of interaction and engagement are numerous in the current research (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Bernard et al., 2009; Bol & Garner, 2011; Cavanaugh et al., 2009; DiPietro et al., 2008; Edwards et al., 2011; Iqbal, Kousar, & Rahmen, 2011; O'Dwyer et al., 2007; Sivin-Kachala & Bialo, 2009). Abrami et al. (2011) examined interaction treatment used in student-to-student, student-to-content, and student-to-instructor interactions to measure their effects. Another recent study by Kanuka (2011) discovered that WebQuests and debates are superior interaction strategies because these strategies scored higher comparatively in previous studies by the author (Kanuka et al., 2007). The author then concluded these strategies are superior because they both (a) are well structured, (b) provided clearly defined roles and responsibilities for the students and (c) provoked the students to explicitly confront others' opinions. The current research in interaction is fine-grained and specific, but opportunities to advance the scholarship in this area still remain.
Current research in methodological success factors and barriers is similarly wide ranging. Many studies focus on adult learners (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Muilenburg & Berge, 2005). But, most of the studies analyzing success factors and barriers are domainwide and exhaustive (Cavanaugh et al., 2009; Picciano & Seaman, 2007; Ronsisvalle & Watkins, 2005; Smith et al., 2005; Watson, 2007). Many ask the question—what is successful and why (Dickson, 2005; Kranch, 2008)? Spears and Tatroe (1997) study a focused question—what are the benefits and drawbacks to partnerships among community colleges, rural schools and telecommunication providers in rural school districts? Muller's research offers insight into success factors and barriers for disabled learners in distance education programs (2009). Wide-ranging studies of success factors and barriers continue to be important in the field but opportunities remain in focused studies of particular success factors and barriers.
Future Research. Success and barriers in methodology is an open area of research where general calls for more research abound and recommendations have yet to be made. Scholars in the field recommend continued and more detailed study of interaction and engagement methodologies in distance education (Archambault, 2009; Edwards et al., 2011) because the ability to collaborate and interact with others is a crucial skill for K-12 graduates in our global marketplace. Researchers recommend exploration to determine how to give students the social interaction and opportunities for academic collaboration that they perceive as valuable, and present in traditional schools, but missing in the online environment (Smouse, 2005). Studies of the different types of interaction, student-to-student, student-to-content, and student-to-instructor are recommended (O'Dwyer et al., 2007; Oliver et al., 2009; Stein, Wanstreet, Calvin, Overtoom, & Wheaton, 2005).
Researchers recommend the study of learning communities in general (Cavanaugh et al., 2009), blogs and other technology resources and their effect in facilitating interaction in online courses (Dickey, 2004), and how learning communities contribute to collaborative learning (Barbour & Reeves, 2009). One researcher suggested the study of real-time data displays to inform and possibly motivate interaction and engagement in students, instructors, and others (Dickson, 2005), which may prove an interesting direction for future study.
Evaluation
Introduction. Evaluation is a tremendously important part of the Framework because of its role in continuing education and professional growth of teachers as well as its role in accountability of schools, learners, teachers, and other people involved in distance education. The ability to prove online distance education as a high-quality learning experience leading to successful outcomes is the challenge faced by advocates for online distance education.
Key Factors and Concepts. Key factors and concepts about evaluation are:
effectiveness of online learning;
student and teacher evaluation in distance education environments; and
quality indicators in online learning.
Current Research. Effectiveness, evaluation, and quality indicators comprise the evaluation section of the framework. Effectiveness is cornerstone of any educational program because programs producing results and outcomes are considered effective. Cavanaugh et al. (2004) suggest researchers try to understand factors that contribute to an effective program's success, and in what specific contexts a program is effective. This study also suggests teacher quality and teacher effectiveness contributes to success in an online program. In 2006, the Southern Regional Education Board published a list of traits measuring teacher effectiveness among other teacher traits, which is an additional resource. Overall, effectiveness, quality, and evaluation are tightly coupled attributes because a quality program is considered effective, which will be discovered in its evaluation.
Evaluation in distance education is often wide ranging and considers all aspects of a program (Black et al., 2008). Some studies just examine course evaluation (International Association for K-12 Online Learning, 2007), but others focus solely on students (Spears & Tatroe, 1997). One particularly interesting evaluation story is from Kirby et al. (2010), who studied high school distance e-learners after graduation to determine their successes later in their academic careers. Their goal was to understand if and how learning in virtual school environments affected their future academic or career work. In this way, the quality of the virtual school experience was considered and assessed.
Researchers exploring quality indicators have published checklists and strategies for creating quality programs (Hess, 2010; International Association for K-12 Online Learning, 2007). This is a relatively open area for future research, but one that should be a focus for researchers so that the quality of online learning continues to be at the forefront of everyone's minds. The interrelated ideas of effectiveness, quality, and evaluation are often considered as parts of a whole assessment program because they work together to affect the outcome experience for learner.
Future Research. Future research of evaluation in distance education might explore effectiveness, student evaluation, and quality indicators. When considering effectiveness, researchers might investigate the specific factors associated with effective programs: best practice, online learning environments, and the influence of learner characteristics on successful outcomes (Rice, 2009). Learners might express their opinion of the effectiveness of a program in a course evaluation during the course or after the course concludes.
In student evaluation, researchers might develop organized student evaluation systems to facilitate consistent data collection. These would include elements common to all programs (i.e., attendance, retention, and student outcomes) (Rice, 2006; 2009). Standardizing data collection from student evaluations across the field of research could help build the common lexicon needed in online distance education research as well as provide a deeper understanding of student needs and opinions of the quality of their programs.
Discovering quality indicators in distance education is an area where scholars have raised many questions and needs for future exploration. Study is needed in the area of increasing the quality of the learning experience, particularly for lower performing students (Cavanaugh et al., 2009). In addition, technology and curriculum might be investigated for quality of outcomes where experimental research using planned variations (such as use of simulations, discussion, chat rooms) within courses might rigorously test hypotheses and enable continuous quality improvement (Dickson, 2005). As well, models of mentoring by peers, teachers, or advisors might be researched in traditional schools to determine what models can be sustained to help increase satisfaction and lead to higher quality online course experiences (Oliver et al., 2009).
Administration
Introduction. Research in administration focuses primarily on public policy and legislation. Many Federal and nonprofit institutes report on the state of policy or ideas for future policy changes. Fewer academic research articles exist in this area and more research reports are published, because of a stronger emphasis on reporting facts for decision-making bodies (such as the U.S. Congress, and state/local agencies).
Key Factors and Concepts. Key factors and concepts about administration are:
accreditation of online schools;
federal/state policy and legislation;
policies for approval and monitoring of online schools;
collaboration between schools in online learning;
administrator training and development to work in an online learning environment;
counseling in online learning;
administrative and technical support for online learning (admin and technology); and
cost/benefit analysis.
Current Research. Numerous policy recommendations are made in articles and reports representing many opinions, analysis, and ideas. With today's focus on managing school budgets, it is no wonder cost-management has been studied from various angles (Center for Digital Education, 2008; Hess, 2010; Ruth, 2010). Archdivili (2008) questions whether economies of scale can be gained from centralized versus local curriculum and policies. Various additional reform ideas explored by researchers in and out of the context of the No Child Left Behind legislation implemented in 2001 (Center for Digital Education, 2008; Hassel & Terrell, 2004; Smith et al., 2005), and governance is emphasized in the current research as well (Rapp, Eckes, & Plucker, 2006; Trujillo, Griffith, Snyder, & Urschel, 2007; Tucker, 2007). Rapp et al. (2006) explore the idea of cyber cheating and ask the valid question—how do you know the parents (or someone else) did not do the work for the child? Reform and governance are often covered in published reports where the topics are explored in order to help individuals or groups make decisions.
Future Research. Future research in administration of distance education programs might focus on accreditation, federal/state policy and legislation, and administrator training and development.
Accreditation is a practical area of research where researchers might work to provide school administrators with mutually agreedupon standards, which ensure distance programs are as accountable as traditional programs through alignment with states' curriculum standards and accreditation (Rice, 2009). Many online K-12 schools welcome an opportunity for accreditation and empirical studies leading to accreditation criteria might be a beneficial addition to the academic field.
Federal/state policy and legislation encompasses areas of cost-effectiveness, cost-control, and understanding costs (Allen et al., 2002; Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Elluminate, 2006; Hess, 2010), educational reform (Center for Digital Education, 2008), hiring online teachers (Archambault & Crippen, 2009), licensure (Center for Digital Education, 2008), and policies for virtual charter schools (Rapp et al., 2006; Rhim & Kowal, 2008). Many future research suggestions are calls for action rather than more research where education public policy is the focus of the article, and the purpose of the writing is to encourage passing legislation and getting folks to work together (Hassel & Terrell, 2004).
With the current strong focus on accreditation and Federal/state policy and legislation, open areas for research abound in the area of administration of distance education programs. As demand increases for online distance education programs for K-12 learners, policymakers want to know the most practical, sound, and advantageous way to implement it as part of our nation's educational plan. Many see the strong potential of online distance education to solve some of our nation's educational system problems, but many policymakers are cautious about adoption without a fully researched plan. Future research in this area will assist policymakers in their decisions.
International
Introduction. International use and deployment of distance education is a promising area of research. While the U.S. experiences tremendous growth in distance education (Ruth, 2010), additional research on non-U.S. populations as well as a mix of U.S. and non-U.S. populations would prove beneficial. Current technology infrastructure advances have made possible unique opportunities for K-12 learners to attend classes and interact with classmates from other countries. The societal value of blending cultures for young learners may be realized later in a learner's career where a mastery of cultural sensitivity and global collaboration skills are expected. International online distance education may help prepare learners for the diverse global workplace (Barbour & Reeves, 2009).
Key Factors and Concepts. Key factors and concepts about international issues are:
Delivery in different languages;
Delivery in different cultures (differing barriers);
Accreditation issues;
Accessing foreign markets;
Support structures in foreign markets; and
Different learning styles in foreign markets.
Current Research. Research in the area of international distance education varies widely among ethnographies, case studies, and other qualitative and quantitative research. For example, Edwards et al. (2011) studied nursing instructors in Australia to discover traits of exemplary teachers. Hur and Hara (2007) and Hur and Brush (2009) studied online teacher communities from Korea and other countries. Iqbal et al. (2011) studied interaction in distance education in a study conducted at Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad, Pakistan. Simpson (2004) studied interventions in the United Kingdom. Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, and Yeh (2008) studied student satisfaction of Taiwanese public university students. These studies add much to the general scholarship of distance education, but do less to help researchers understand the international nature of distance education. Overall, a true benefit of more research in international education is the opportunity for students to gain a rich experience in learning from and with students of other cultures (Barbour & Reeves, 2009).
Future Research. Future research in international distance education is an open area where many studies will add to the body of knowledge. These studies might be comparisons of distance education programs among countries, delivery of distance education in different languages, delivery of distance education in different cultures (unique cultural needs and barriers), accreditation issues, accessing foreign markets, support structures in foreign markets, and different learning styles in foreign markets. As you can see, there are tremendous opportunities to add to the scholarship in international distance education.
History
Introduction. Nearly all academic research and reports describe the history of distance education in the introductory material, but studying the history of distance education will continue to be relevant as we use the past as an indicator of the future. As well, researchers with access to historical year-on-year data about distance education might exercise the tremendous advantage of mining the data for trends, which might add substantial knowledge to the field of distance education.
Key Factors and Concepts. Key factors and concepts about history issues are:
replicating and learning from past research studies;
examining the historical basis for current distance education policies and practices; and
longitudinal studies comparing historical data.
Current Research. While nearly all research articles describe some history of distance education, some studies are particularly exhaustive and descriptive. In 1995, Vedantham and Breeden reported on computer technology in the classroom—how it varied across the United States, how teachers could use it to communicate with one another, and how it could network groups of students to reduce isolation and enhance learning. The article is from 1995, so the technology predictions have largely been either realized or abandoned. However, it is still valuable in its description of how certain populations of teachers and specific types of students can benefit from being electronically networked to other groups across the nation and world. The article reports that educational innovation is a must in the developing information age. According to the report, absorbing a textbook in a linear fashion is a learning technique developed for a factory economy. Today's student needs a different type of learning. Additionally, Vedantham and Breeden stated that education development is slowed by teacher isolation, and that is still true today (Hur & Brush, 2009; Hur & Hara, 2007).
Barbour and Reeves (2009) present a vast overview of distance education history from the past to today beginning with stressing the importance of choosing a common vocabulary for future research. While conducting their review of the literature in the distance education field, they found their study hampered somewhat by the wide variety of keywords they needed to use in order to retrieve all the distance education research resources from libraries and indexes. A common lexicon for research in online distance education is sure to give researchers a better understanding of current research in the field from the past to the present.
Future Research. The past is our only suggestion of what the future might be like, and studies of the history of distance education are opportunities to add to the distance education body of knowledge. Researchers might find history combined with other conceptual Framework subjects particularly fruitful, such as the history of international distance education. Also, the study of past distance education programs in longitudinal studies will be useful to the field in understanding the long-term effects of particular distance education efforts. Lastly, researchers can learn a great deal from past distance education initiatives. In some cases studies might be replicated with differing technologies or curriculum. Also, as K-12 students become more proficient with technology at earlier ages, some of the historical distance education studies and approaches might yield very different results in today's world. Researchers can learn a great deal from the past that will benefit the future.
Conclusion
While demand for online K-12 distance education grows, so too does the need for rigorous empirical research of its impact on teachers, learners, administrators, and other affected parties. The nine-component conceptual Framework for Research in Online K-12 Distance Education is a categorized foundational structure, which may be of use to the academy and industry alike. The framework not only makes use of the strengths of general conceptual research frameworks, but it also adds field-specific goals. Categorization is an additional strength of the Framework, where it provides context for future research studies.
The framework uses the strengths of general conceptual research frameworks by identifying key factors, concepts, relationships, prior research, and other studies (Maxwell, 2005; Miles & Huberman, 1994). With a framework, all aspects of inquiry are connected to a central idea and thus become manageable. In many ways, the Framework is like a network of ideas. Though it is impossible to cite every research study in the framework itself, each study cited is built upon its own research, which spreads the network farther and wider than any single research article can.
The framework adds the field-specific goals of establishing a common lexicon, empirically extrapolating research about adult students to apply to K-12 students, and focusing on the design and analysis of online distance education. If a common lexicon, or vernacular, is developed about online distance education, studies can be combined and relationships discovered as empirical studies build upon one another. A common lexicon can help extrapolate research about adult students, which can provide access to more numerous research studies and data, further widening the field. The field may also grow interdisciplinarily through partnerships in instructional design, neurology (Davidson, 2011; Hardiman, 2003), writing and rhetoric (Hewett et al., 2011), and any discipline where online pedagogy is in frequent use.
