This article explores the changing nature of P-12 distance education, from its traditional roots of rural and remote students to urban students seeking an alternative to conventional school. The present study examined distance education in the Australian context, focusing on Queensland, through a semistructured survey of parents (n = 43) across three distance education schools. This study explored the child’s learning location, context, and academic and social engagement as determined by the parent. In addition, this study examined the reasons why parents selected distance education over a conventional day school. Findings from this study indicated a high uptake of distance education by families residing in large regional and urban settings. This data contrasts the traditional roots and the common understanding of distance education in Australia. This article further explores factors contributing to the growth of distance education. It presents current and future trends that may respond to distance education students’ changed demographics and learning needs.
Originally termed external studies and later known as correspondence learning, distance education in Queenslandhas experienced significant growth in recent years (Independent Schools Queensland, 2021). Distance education in Australia, was initiated in 1909 atthe secondary school level and then in 1914 at the primary school level when state governments were mandated to provide an education program to all children (Reiach et al., 2012; Stacey, 2005). Such was the success of correspondence education that “Australia can claim to be the first country to have shown in a systematic way and on a large scale, that it is possible to provide, by correspondence, a complete elementary education for children who have never been to school” (Cunningham, 1931, p. 9).
While the term distance education is broad, the Department of Educationin New South Wales defines distance education as “an equity programfor … students who are geographically isolated or whose circumstancesprevent them from regularly attending school” (https:// education.nsw.gov.au/).
The recent pandemic found teachers nationwide reliant on the technologies that distance education was already well versed. Technology and distance education have a historical narrative of being synonymous, with education providers taking a front-foot approach to implementing technology for improved educational outcomes. Correspondence education initiated the two-way radio, opening the way for direct access to teaching and learning, whichhad previously only been achieved through curriculum received via the postal service. Providers of correspondence education were quick to adapt newtechnologies such as audio and later video tape recorders and then establish an audio graphic network that linked modems and allowed for shared screens, enabling collaborative sharing of a teacher (Stacey, 2005).
From the humble beginnings of correspondence education, distance education has continued to flourish (Reiach et al., 2012), and distance education providers have been quick to adopt new and emerging technologies, including online ecosystems such as the Google Classroom, Blackboard, Canvas, and other platforms, creating a space for explicit teaching and a rigorous and responsive curriculum. In terms of learning outcomes, distance education in online learning is at least as effective as conventional education and often more effective (Hannum et al., 2008).
The Current Position Of Distance Education In Australia
There are various independent and public distance education providers across Australia. New South Wales offers the greatest options for distance education providers (n = 18), followed by Queensland (n = 12) and then the Northern Territory (n = 3), see Table 1. Distance education sector enrollments have increased over the past 5 years; in fact, Queensland has seen a 52% increase in enrollments in independent distance education over the past 5 years (Independent Schools Queensland, 2021). Recent enrollment growth has been, in part, the result of the recent global pandemic, growing by 12.5%. However, growth in distance education preceded the pandemic (Independent Schools Queensland, 2021).
Distance Education Providers in Australia
| State | Independent Distance Education School | Level | Public Distance Education Schools | Level |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Victoria | — | — | 1 | P-12 |
| New South Wales | 1 | P–12 | 2 | Preschool |
| 9 | Primary | |||
| 6 | Secondary | |||
| Queensland | 5 | P–12 | 4 | P–12 |
| 1 | P–10 | 2 | P–10 | |
| South Australia | — | — | 1 | P–12 |
| Tasmania | — | — | 1 | K–10 |
| 1 | 7–12 | |||
| Western Australia | 1 | P–12 | 1 | K–12 |
| 1 | 7–12 | |||
| Northern Territory | — | — | 1 | 10–12 |
| 2 | P–9 | |||
| Australian Capital Territory | — | — | 1 | Primary |
| 1 | Secondary |
| State | Independent Distance Education School | Level | Public Distance Education Schools | Level |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Victoria | — | — | 1 | P-12 |
| New South Wales | 1 | P–12 | 2 | Preschool |
| 9 | Primary | |||
| 6 | Secondary | |||
| Queensland | 5 | P–12 | 4 | P–12 |
| 1 | P–10 | 2 | P–10 | |
| South Australia | — | — | 1 | P–12 |
| Tasmania | — | — | 1 | K–10 |
| 1 | 7–12 | |||
| Western Australia | 1 | P–12 | 1 | K–12 |
| 1 | 7–12 | |||
| Northern Territory | — | — | 1 | 10–12 |
| 2 | P–9 | |||
| Australian Capital Territory | — | — | 1 | Primary |
| 1 | Secondary |
Sources: Good Schools Guide (2021); The Northern Territory Government (2021).
Teaching And Learning In Distance Education
A range of terms are used to describe the learning program of a child working from home, including distance education, flexible education, home study, home education, remote learning, online learning, external learning,and at-home learning (Bozkurt, 2019) and each of these terms has discretely different pedagogical approaches. While the pedagogical approach to distance education will vary from school to school, the following section broadly outlines some of the considerations which distance education providersmay consider when designing an appropriate pedagogical framework.
Asynchronous and Synchronous
Distance education pedagogy may be broadly divided into two critical modes of learning: synchronous and asynchronous. Asynchronous learning is an independent approach whereby a student learns independently or on their computer via a school learning management system (LMS), such as Moodle, Blackboard, and Google Classroom. Asynchronicity offers students a range of benefits, including a broader choice of study options, flexibility, and expediency. It allows a learner to more or less work at their own pace, which may contribute to a greater depth of learning (Serdyukov, 2020). While asynchronous learning allows anywhere and anytime access for students, the lack of immediacy in teacher feedback can slow the learning process (Persada et al., 2022). Distance education which incorporates synchronous learning requires teachers to develop specific skills, including understanding how to use technologies to connect with students, employing strategies to make remote students seem “real,” helping students feel comfortable with technology, and designing learning tasks that foster students’ inquiry, construction of meaning and deep learning and ability to build community in the online classroom (Rehn et al., 2018).
In contrast to the static nature of asynchronous learning, synchronous learning offers a live and interactive learning environment providing dynamic, collaborative, and immediacy learning, which involves the learner, the teacher/instructor, and other learners (Serdyukov, 2020). Synchronous learning in distance education may include live web conferences and virtual classrooms (He et al., 2020)
Distance education can respond directly to a student’s needs, be it synchronous, asynchronous, or, most commonly, a blend of both modes of learning.
The Role Of The Parent
Essential to a successful learning program is the provision of a parent.1 The role of the parent is to supervise the distance education learning program, liaise with their child’s teachers, and, during the early learning years in particular, provide one-to-one tutoring. Parents aregenerally the mothers who are also required to perform home duties alongside their role of a home tutor (Forlin & Tierney, 2006). Thus any pedagogical approach to distance education should acknowledge the diverse roles of the parent.
Direct Instruction
Established around 4 decades ago, direct instruction sought
efficiency and effectiveness of instruction through program design, organization of instruction, and positive student-teacher interaction. The approach attempts to control all the significant variables that impact student learning through the placement and grouping of students into instructional groups, the rate and type of examples presented by the teacher, the wording that teach-ers use to teach specific concepts and skills, the frequency and type of review of material introduced, the assessment of student’s mastery of the material covered, and the responses by teachers to students’ attempts to learn the material. (Stockard, 2011, p. 3)
While proponents claim direct instruction to be ineffective (see Eppley & Dudley-Mar- ling, 2019), direct instruction within early years and lower primary school distance education may offer the parent a clear and explicit curriculum program that the parent can present to the child.
Flexibility
Anytime anyplace; this theme emerged from an analysis by Veletsianos and Houlden (2019) of flexible learning in distance education. The anytime-anyplace concept was noted as a state “of being in which learning and teaching are increasingly freed from the limitations of the time, place, and pace of study” (Naidu, 2017, p. 269). This sense of freedom allows learners to establish learning routines and processes to fit their learning styles, whether first thing in the morning, late in the evening, on weekends or to fit within their part-time work. Flexible learning has also been identified as vital for youth disenfranchised or disengaged from mainstream school (Riele et al., 2017). Raising the attainment of upper school completion is a national government objective, and the flexibility of distance education may have a more significant role in this than is currently identified.
Research Question/Purpose
This paper seeks to better understand the current context of distance education. The present study asks three questions (a) What is the learning location and context of the child, (b) What were the key motivations for parents in selecting distance education, (c) Are the children who study via distance education engaged in their learning and socially connected?
METHODOLOGY
This small-scale research study included three distance education providers. Research participants were parents of both Primary and Secondary school-aged children (5-18 years) who were enrolled in distance education at the time of the research project. A total of 43 responses were made to thesurvey across three distance education providers.
This research applied a semistructured survey. The semistructured survey used Google Forms, allowing the dispersion of online surveys. The surveyincluded open and closed questions but mainly comprised of checkbox options, allowing it to be completed quickly and easily. The survey was split into three key areas: (a) the learning location and context, (b) the reasons/motivations for selecting distance education, and (c) the child’s educational and social engagement.
The method of data analysis was thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is an inductive approach that identifies and analyses patterns and meaning from data by illustrating themes important within the context of the study (Joffe, 2012). Fereday and Muir-Cochrane (2006, p. 4) describe thematic analysis as “a form of pattern recognition within the data, where emerging themes become the categories for analysis.”
Results And Discussion
Study Context
This study was applied across three medium-sized nonstate Prep to Year 12 distance education schools. At the time of the study, there were approximately 2,600 students enrolled across the three distance education schools. The study was undertaken in the Australian state of Queensland. Queensland is one of six states of Australia and comprises a population size of 5,217,653 people across a land area of 1,701,712 square kilometers (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). The capital city of Queensland is Brisbane, a medium sized city with a population of 2,568,927 people (AustralianBureau of Statistics, 2022).
Learning Contextof Distance Education Students
This section of the paper seeks to understand better the learning context of the students undertaking distance educations. The semistructured survey requested participants to respond to three key areas of the learner’s context: (a) geographical isolation; (b) the primary “at-home tutor”; (c) location of learning.
Geographical Location
From its roots in catering to remote and rurally located students who may not have had access to conventional schooling (such as those on cattle stations), the current demographics of distance education students have significantly shifted. The survey asked respondents to list the postcode of their current residence. Analysis of the survey responses, Table 2, found a high proportion of respondents (49%) were located within 100 km of Brisbane, the capital city of Queensland. Of the respondents located more than 100 km from Brisbane, the majority (67%) resided within the postcodes of large regional towns, resulting in 87% of respondents residing in an urban or large regional setting. Of the postcodes provided by respondents, there were corresponding options of one or more conventional day schools (either state or independent or both). While this is a small-scale data set, it is evident that distance education has shifted from rural and remote learning locations to urban settings.
Postcode of Respondents in Brisbane
| Proportion of Respondents | |
|---|---|
| 0–25 kms from Brisbane | 27% |
| 25–50 kms from Brisbane | 12% |
| 50–100 kms from Brisbane | 10% |
| More than 100 kms from Brisbane | 51% |
| Proportion of Respondents | |
|---|---|
| 0–25 kms from Brisbane | 27% |
| 25–50 kms from Brisbane | 12% |
| 50–100 kms from Brisbane | 10% |
| More than 100 kms from Brisbane | 51% |
The shift of the traditional distance education demographics of remote and rural families to families located in an urban or regional center may indicate various changes to the schooling landscape, including a greater acceptance of distance education, changing perceptions of education, and that, with improved educational technologies, distance education looks and feels more like a conventional day school. Distance education providers should consider the changed demographics of their students and ensure that learning programs are relevant to their contexts.
Distance education is defined as “an equity program for ... students who are geographically isolated or whose individual circumstances prevent them from regularly attending school” (https://education.nsw.gov.au/), yet with such a shift in the proportion of students who are geographically isolated, a reviewed definition is proposed, being:
an educational program which is pedagogically designed so as to allow the student and educator to be spatially separate.
The above definition removes the notion that students are geographically isolated and creates a sense of a more equitable education program.
Role of the Parent
According to the enrollment applications of distance education providers, parents who enroll their children in distance education must nominate a home tutor. The role of the hometutor varies; however, typically, the home tutor will facilitate/monitor the child’s learning program. The role of the home tutor generally shifts as a child progresses from preparatory to Year 12. In the early learning setting, the home tutor has a more explicit and intentional role with the child, working alongside in a dual role with the distance education teacher, and then, as the child’s learning independence grows, the role of the home tutor shifts to that of a coach/mentor role resulting in the distance education teacher being the primary educator. The survey results found that of the n = 43 respondents, the home tutor was primarily the role of the mother (93%). As the mother is the nominated home tutor, this limits her capacity to work, leaving most distance education families reliant on a single income, the father’s. The inability to dual income may be a key limitation to growth within the distance education sector. Distance education providers may need to consider household income when setting out school fees.
Location of Student Learning
The pedagogical approach of distance education providers is diverse, yet this creates an opportunity for parents to seek a learning program that aligns with family needs and geographical location. For example, more rural- based families may seek the paper-based learning program due to constraints concerning their internet service, and another family may seek the online program if their child learns and engages well within the online platforms. The location of learning for students studying distance education was overwhelmingly the home (n = 41), with only n = 2 families nominating a library as the main learning area and n = 1 undertaking learning within a workplace. Understanding the location of learning may guide the pedagogical framework of the various distance education providers; for example, knowing that the majority of learners are located in the home may enable providers to undertake teacher/teacher aide visits to the home in order to support both the child and the home tutor.
Motivation for Learning Through Distance Education
This paper sought to understand better the motivations for parents electing to educate their children through a distance education program. Given the significant shift concerning the geographical location of the respondents identified above, that is, from the traditional rural/remote to urban/regional settings, understanding the reason why distance education was selected as opposed to a conventional day school will equip educators to design more relevant learning, support and welfare programs.
Of the survey respondents, 81% identified having had their children previously enrolled in a conventional day school, and the remaining 19% had enrolled their child from their initial year of education, being prep level (students aged 5 years). Of the respondents who indicated having previously had their child enrolled in a conventional day school, 36% shifted their child’s enrollment to distance education due to the child being bullied, Table 3. The survey did not allow a respondent to expand on the mode of bullying (online, physical or verbal). In addition, the present research study found that 14% of respondents stated that they moved their child from a conventional day school to distance education due to the child developing school anxiety and depression.
Reasons for Moving From a Conventional Day School.
| Bullying issues | Not meeting my child’s needs | My child suffers from depression/anxiety | Too many distractions at school | Improved academic progress | The travel time was too far | Due to my child’s health issues |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 36% | 11% | 14% | 3% | 28% | 3% | 3% |
| Bullying issues | Not meeting my child’s needs | My child suffers from depression/anxiety | Too many distractions at school | Improved academic progress | The travel time was too far | Due to my child’s health issues |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 36% | 11% | 14% | 3% | 28% | 3% | 3% |
In considering that the principal reasons for parents selecting distance education was from bullying, anxiety, and depression, distance education providers may find that initial wellbeing support could significantly benefit newly enrolled students. There is, of course, the challenge to a distance educator to provide well-being support to a child who is working remotely; however, given the advances in technology, there are opportunities for distance educators to explore further opportunities to respond to student well-being. It is suggested that student well-being in distance education requires additional research.
The data presented in Table 3 shows that 28% of respondents selected distance education to improve their children’s academic outcomes. Developing rigorous academic programs in a distance education program relies heavily on subject-teacher expertise. Teachers preparing academic learning material need to be equipped with an understanding of distance education pedagogies, with a thorough understanding of engaging children who work remotely. The role of the home tutor also plays a vital role in the academic outcomes achieved by a student enrolled in distance education, and it may benefit students where distance education providers provide training to the home tutors.
The research survey asked respondents who previously had a child enrolled in a conventional school if they were likely to re-enroll their child in a conventional school again. Analysis of the data, presented in Table 4, shows that 72.5% responded that they were either unlikely (37.5%) or would not (35%) enroll their child into a conventional school again, whereas 25% of respondents stated that they would consider a conventional school if the circumstances were right. Distance educa tion is not the first choice for many families. However, once their student was enrolled, the parent found it a largely positive alternative to a conventional day school.
The Likelihood That a Parent Would Re-Enroll Their Child Into a Conventional Day School.
| Likely | Unlikely | I would consider it if circumstances were right | I would not consider it at all |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2.50% | 37.50% | 25% | 35% |
| Likely | Unlikely | I would consider it if circumstances were right | I would not consider it at all |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2.50% | 37.50% | 25% | 35% |
Analysis of the survey data found that there were secondary motivations for enrolling a child in distance education. As the research survey allowed for multiple responses, there were n = 96 responses. Of the responses, 28% selected distance education due to the flexible nature of the learning program, 21% to improve their child’s academic outcomes, and 16.5% as they were unhappy with their child’s previous school, see Table 5. Of the responses, 9.5% were motivated to enroll in distance education to improve their child’s social connection.
Additional Motivations for a Parent Enrolling Their Child in Distance Education.
| Flexible Learning | Improved Family Connection | To Spend More Time With My Children | Improved Academic Outcomes | Improve Social Connections | Unhappy With Previous School | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N = 96 responses | 28% | 11.5% | 13.5% | 21% | 9.5% | 16.5% |
| Flexible Learning | Improved Family Connection | To Spend More Time With My Children | Improved Academic Outcomes | Improve Social Connections | Unhappy With Previous School | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N = 96 responses | 28% | 11.5% | 13.5% | 21% | 9.5% | 16.5% |
Student Engagemen
Irrespective of the learning context, student engagement is central to effective learning, student success, and student well-being (Mae- her, 1984; Fredericks et al., 2004). Student engagement is defined by Axelson and Flick 2011,( p. 38) as “how involved or interested students appear in their learning and how connected they are to their classes, their institutions, and each other.” Various international
studies have explored mechanisms for enhanced student motivations. However, a study by Murphy and Rodriguez-Manzanares (2009) analyzes teachers’ perspectives on student motivation, including personal relationships, interactions and discussions, humor, teacher feedback, engaging learning, the pace of learning, and encouragement.
Of the survey respondents, 81.5% responded that they perceived their child’s engagement in learning was a good or above level of engagement, with 18.5% responding that their child’s engagement was low or poor, see Table 6. Maintaining student engagement in a distance education context is essential, and distance education providers may benefit by reflecting on the findings of Murphy and Rodriguez-Manzanares (2009).
Social Engagement
Within a conventional school context, classrooms and playgrounds facilitate the development of social competence. Kostelnik et al. (2014, p. 2) define social competence as “the knowledge and skills children need to achieve their goals and to interact with others effectively.” Distance education lacks a visible interaction between the class teacher and between peers and has the potential to socially isolate a child who is learning from home. While physically attending school creates opportunities for social engagement, analysis of the data from the present study suggests that students who study through distance education are not disadvantaged socially. In fact, as Participant 25 stated, “I had perceived DE as socially isolating before we started [but] my teen has more social interaction with different groups [whereas] when at school, it was just with the same group.”
Distance education also offers opportunities for students to grow in social competence and confidence, as Participant 30 explained
[my child] was previously very shy and withdrawn. She has now grown in confidence and is able to communicate in a more confident and sophisticated level with adults. Her communication skills are excellent and she has lost the fear of her peers which enables greater creative and truthful expression.
This statement was supported by Participant 36, who stated:
It wasn’t until we started schooling from home through [distance education] that we noticed a massive change in our daughter’s temperament within the first 3 months. She was so much happier, less anxious, we watched her blossom as that pressure lifted from her shoulders.
Participant 13 shared that they had moved to distance education to develop academically as well as socially:
Yes! Day school broke one of our children.We enrolled them in [distance education] for Year 2, with that year spent mostly building their self-esteem, confidence, and motivation. Two years later, they’ve jumped 3-year levels, increased in self-confidence, and now enjoy learning.
The above parent statements show that distance education is not socially disadvantaging children. The research survey asked parents if they could identify a decline either socially or academically; of the responses, 95% of participants stated that there was no decline socially or academically. In addition, when parents were asked if they would recommend distance education to other parents, 88% responded that they would recommend distanceeducation, and 12% stated that they might recommend distance education to other parents.
Current Challenges And Future Opportunities
The recent pandemic resulted in schools across the globe rolling out “emergency remote education,” whereby education institutes deployed a range of pedagogical approaches to enable ongoing teaching and learning to primary and secondary-aged students. While many of the “emergency remote learning” was rolled out haphazardly, with significant software companies developing and offering educational services (Williamson et al., 2020), analysis of these models and learning platforms will enhance the future of distance education. Zimmerman (2020, p. 1) states
Coronavirus … has created a set of unprecedented natural experiments. For the first time, entire student bodies have been compelled to take all their classes online. So we can examine how they perform in these courses compared to the face-to-face kind without worrying about the bias of self-selection. It might be hard to get good data if the online instruction only lasts a few weeks. However, at institutions that have moved to online-only for the rest of the semester, we should be able to measure how much students learn in that medium compared to the face-to- face instruction they received earlier.
Distance education opens a breadth of opportunities for primary and secondary school learners. One such example is within the learning area of language. There is a need for more language teachers in many countries, including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand (Swanson & Mason, 2018). Distance education opens an avenue for facilitating online language programs. A currentexample of this is a language provider of Mandarin whose teacher is based in Beijing and “zooms” into classrooms across the globe, providing students context to the study of the Mandarin language. Both distance education and conventional day schools have the opportunity to take a similar approach by engaging specialist teachers from across the globe in areas such as robotics, engineering, music, drama, and dance.
Distance education has the potential to enhance blended learning programs. Blended learning broadly refers to learning which includes more than one mode of learning and may be defined as “the thoughtful integration of classroom face-to-face instruction with online learning experiences” (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). Blended learning combines asynchronous learning with the immediacy of classroom-based learning programs and opportunities for the growth and development of a learning community (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). Internationally, there has been a shift among tertiary institutions toward the blended learning model (Jowsey et al., 2020). With an ever-changing educational landscape, it is recommended that Primary and Secondary learning providers seek to develop blended learning models.
Conclusion
This study’s purpose was better to understand the reasons behind the urbanization of distance education. The data from this study reveals that 87% of respondents were located within an urban or large regional setting, with 49% residing within 100 km of Brisbane, the capital city of Queensland. As outlined in the introduction, distance education is defined as“an equity program for … students who are geographically isolatedor whose individual circumstances prevent them from regularly attending school” (https://education.nsw .gov.au/). The data within this research study contrasts this general definition and demonstrates a clear shift from the roots of correspondence education to rural and remote students. The present study defines “an educational program whichispedagogically designed so as to allow the student and educator to be spatially separatee.” This changed definition clarifies that distanceeducation is an equitable learning program for geographically isolated andurban students.
Analysis of survey data shows a significant proportion of parents selected distance education due to bullying issues at the child’s previous school, along with parents seeking improved academic outcomes for theirchild. The data from this research found that, according to parents, 81.5%of children demonstrated good to very high levels of engagement. This level of engagement may indicate why 72.5% of parents were unlikely or would not consider enrolling their child in a conventional school again.
Distance education has the potential to continue to grow as more families realize that it is an equitable alternative to conventional school. With the rapid development of educational technology and high levels of academic and social engagement, distance education may become the first choice for parents when considering their child’s education.
While the findings of this research study will assist distance education providers, researchers, and government organizations, it is essential tonote that this was a small-scale research project, and further research isrequired to understand the shifting paradigm of distance education.
For this paper,“parent” encompasses parent, carer, or guardian.
