Generational responses to guerrilla marketing: examining brand associations across Generations Z and Y

In today’s saturated advertising landscape, consumers are exposed to thousands of promotional messages each day, many of which are quickly ignored or forgotten (Silvira and Riswanto, 2024). As traditional advertising channels lose their effectiveness, marketers are increasingly turning to innovative, disruptive methods to break through the noise (Kumar, 2024). One such strategy is guerrilla marketing, an unconventional approach designed to surprise and engage audiences by placing ads in unexpected locations or formats (Khalid, 2024; Manyal and Mittal, 2020). This technique has gained momentum in both developed and emerging markets, particularly among brands seeking to create memorable experiences with limited budgets (Gökerik et al., 2018). The widespread adoption of mobile devices and social media platforms has further amplified the reach and relevance of guerrilla campaigns, especially among younger, digitally native audiences (Kumar, 2024).

A widely cited example is Adidas’ “Forever Sport” bus stop campaign, displaying creatively disguised brochures in its posters to create a playful, interactive brand encounter. These ads invite pedestrians to physically engage with the content, revealing hidden images of world-class athletes and transforming a routine wait into an immersive experience (Magnetic, 2025). This campaign illustrates how guerrilla marketing departs from traditional advertising by using tactile interaction and surprises to create brand connections that are both emotional and memorable.

Unlike traditional advertisements, guerrilla marketing tactics often depend on unexpected placements, emotional resonance and social amplification to engage consumers (Chionne and Scozzese, 2014; Gökerik et al., 2018). These techniques rely on creativity and novelty rather than budget-heavy channels, allowing brands to create high-impact impressions through humor, disruption or surprise (Hæreid and Indregård, 2015). They also foster deeper emotional connections by evoking curiosity and triggering social sharing. Although foundational studies (Hutter and Hoffmann, 2011; Levinson, 2001) have contributed to defining guerrilla marketing, there is a growing need to integrate more recent empirical insights to reflect evolving digital contexts and generational behaviors.

Recent literature highlights the ways in which guerrilla marketing, when amplified through social media and integrated with digital platforms, enhance brand image and influence consumer response (Gökerik et al., 2018; Khalid, 2024; Kumar, 2024; Manyal and Mittal, 2020). These campaigns have proven especially effective among younger, media-savvy consumers who value brand authenticity, creativity and engagement. For example, guerrilla strategies are associated with higher brand engagement and word-of-mouth (WOM) among digitally connected audiences (Qureshi, 2023), particularly those belonging to Generation Z (Gen Z) and Generation Y (Gen Y), who seek out nontraditional, immersive brand experiences (Dinh and Mai, 2016; Khosravi and Ranjbar, 2020; Soomro et al., 2021).

Despite this emerging body of work, several important research gaps remain. First, existing studies often focus on a single generational cohort; for instance, Dinh and Mai (2016) explore guerrilla marketing’s effects on Gen Y, but there is limited comparative research that systematically contrasts how Gen Z and Gen Y respond to such tactics. Second, while guerrilla marketing has been widely studied in Western or developed markets, there is a dearth of research in emerging economies such as Azerbaijan, where advertising norms, media access and consumer expectations are rapidly evolving (Watsin, 2024). Research by Oumlil and Balloun (2020) supports the argument that cultural context significantly shapes generational advertising responses and further justifies the need to investigate these dynamics within specific non-Western settings, such as Azerbaijan. Third, many prior studies have emphasized qualitative insights or intermediate outcomes such as engagement, while key brand-level outcomes such as trust and performance remain underexplored. Finally, the findings in the literature are not always consistent: Some studies highlight high engagement from younger cohorts, while others report only moderate or context-specific effects (Khalid, 2024; Manyal and Mittal, 2020). These gaps point to a need for further research using a comparative, theory-driven approach to understand how generational differences and local market contexts influence consumer responses.

This study investigated the impact on brand trust and brand performance of guerrilla marketing, with a specific focus on Gen Z and Gen Y in Azerbaijan, a context marked by accelerated digital adoption and a growing demand for culturally relevant, locally resonant advertising (Watsin, 2024). As digital platforms and influencer marketing gain traction in the country, guerrilla marketing presents a compelling opportunity for brands to connect with younger consumers using creative, cost-effective methods. Understanding these dynamics has practical implications for marketers operating in resource-constrained environments and contributes to broader conversations about marketing effectiveness in non-Western transitional economies.

Consequently, this research advances the theoretical understanding of generational marketing by examining how Gen Z and Gen Y differ in their media consumption habits and cognitive processing styles. By highlighting these generational nuances, the study contributes to both theory and practice, offering strategic insights for marketers and enriching the academic discourse on guerrilla marketing in emerging global markets.

Guerrilla marketing has been defined as a “special type of warfare, in which atypical tactics are used to achieve objectives inside the enemy” (Zarco and Herzallah, 2023, p. 1). This marketing strategy is increasingly used to create intrigue and foster brand awareness in ways that resonate with today’s media-savvy consumers (Zarco and Herzallah, 2023). Its unconventional nature allows brands to break through advertising clutter and engage consumers more directly and unexpectedly, which can be particularly effective in overstimulated digital environments.

In a world in which audiences are constantly bombarded with advertising, guerrilla marketing stands out by engaging people without the explicit cues that lead to ad fatigue. This approach can leave a lasting impression, particularly on younger generations, such as Gen Z, who are drawn to authenticity and indirect forms of brand engagement (Ali, 2023). These traits make guerrilla marketing particularly relevant in contexts where traditional ad fatigue is high and consumer attention is fragmented.

Guerrilla marketing, characterized by nontraditional, surprise-driven strategies, has been empirically linked to positive financial impacts for companies. In an analysis of 803 campaigns from 2007 to 2017, Davis and Davis (2021) found that guerrilla marketing initiatives yielded a remarkably positive share on a par with those generated by celebrity endorsements. Notably, emotional appeals – especially those evoking joy – were associated with favorable returns, while humor and rational appeals, such as quality claims, correlated with negative financial outcomes. These results reinforce the importance of emotional design in guerrilla marketing and provide quantitative support for its strategic value.

The effectiveness of guerrilla marketing hinges largely on its perceived credibility, especially for Gen Y, as shown in the work of Dinh and Mai (2016). Their study highlights that the ability of guerrilla marketing to influence Gen Y’s WOM intention is mediated by the campaign’s perceived credibility. If it is seen as authentic and trustworthy, it is likelier to generate positive WOM and foster brand loyalty. This insight suggests that, for older digital consumers, trust-building elements must be baked into even the most unconventional campaigns.

Central to this effort is the creation of positive brand associations that shape consumer perceptions and influence purchasing behavior (Gerber et al., 2014). Brand associations encompass the mental and emotional connections that consumers form with a brand, including their experiences, emotions and perceived value. In competitive markets, these associations serve as critical heuristics that drive purchasing decisions. They also play a crucial role in differentiating a brand from its competitors, particularly in crowded markets in which consumers are bombarded with promotional messages. This underscores the need to deliver consistent, emotionally resonant experiences through every marketing touchpoint.

Research into guerrilla marketing suggests that it is particularly effective in creating memorable brand associations due to its ability to evoke strong emotional responses from consumers (Salonen, 2015). The unconventional and surprising nature of guerrilla marketing engages consumers at a deeper level than traditional advertising, making the brand experience more personal and impactful. Such approaches are aligned with consumer behavior research that emphasizes experiential engagement as a driver of memory and preference formation.

The effects of guerrilla marketing on consumer brand perceptions vary across demographics and generations. For Gen Z, who are more inclined toward emotional and immersive brand experiences, guerrilla marketing can be especially powerful (Dinh and Mai, 2016). These strategies often use interactive and experiential elements that appeal to Gen Z’s desire for novelty and engagement, making it a preferred method for brands targeting younger demographics (Ali, 2023).

Recent segmentation research has revealed that Gen Z is far from homogeneous. Van den Bergh et al. (2024) identified distinct Gen Z subgroups across Europe, the USA and Australia, each varying in its brand value priorities, such as sustainability, exclusivity and inclusivity. These findings underscore the importance of considering intracohort diversity when designing marketing strategies for this generation. For example, guerrilla campaigns that include physical interaction, such as tactile or visually striking posters and brochures, have proven to resonate well with this cohort, creating memorable consumer experiences that drive engagement and brand loyalty. These findings suggest that marketers aiming to appeal to Gen Z must prioritize sensory design and co-creative campaign elements.

In contrast, while guerrilla marketing can also influence Gen Y, their responses may be shaped more by the perceived credibility of the brand message, as this generation tends to favor more transparent and trustworthy interactions with brands (Kontakis et al., 2009). Consequently, while guerrilla marketing remains effective for both generations, its impact is amplified for Gen Z consumers due to their heightened sensitivity to experiential and emotional marketing tactics. This generational contrast underscores the need for targeted strategy design based on media psychology and generational marketing theory.

Although guerrilla marketing can generate significant visibility and create a strong emotional connection with consumers, it also raises ethical concerns (Ay et al., 2010), particularly when the line between genuine engagement and manipulation becomes blurred. By surprising or misleading audiences into interacting with a brand in unexpected ways, guerrilla marketing can sometimes be perceived as intrusive or deceptive, particularly if the consumer feels tricked into engaging with the marketing content (Hutter and Hoffmann, 2011). These concerns are especially relevant in public and high-sensitivity spaces where perceived deception can erode trust and damage brand reputation.

In fact, marketing tactics that seem manipulative or intrusive can have a negative impact on consumer perceptions and engagement. This finding aligns with broader research suggesting that for guerrilla marketing to be successful – particularly with skeptical consumer groups like Gen Y – credibility must be established early in the campaign (Dinh and Mai, 2016). This concern is amplified when tactics are used in public spaces, potentially leading to negative backlash if consumers or authorities view the tactics as disruptive or unethical (Zarco and Herzallah, 2023). Thus, while guerrilla marketing offers creative potential, it must be implemented with strategic ethical consideration to avoid undermining brand legitimacy.

Generational cohorts are shaped by distinct social, cultural and technological environments that influence their media consumption habits, cognitive processing and decision-making strategies. Through the lens of dual-process theory, media richness theory and prospect theory, this study considered the influence of generational differences on the effectiveness of guerrilla marketing by examining the responses to these strategies of Gen Z (born approximately 1997–2012) and Gen Y (born approximately 1980–1997), the latter often referred to interchangeably as “millennials” (Pew Research Center, 2019).

Dual process theory posits that individuals process information through two systems: System 1 processing is immediate, automatic and emotional while System 2 is slower, deliberate and logical) (Kahneman, 2011). Gen Z, having grown up in a digitally saturated environment, is more likely to rely on System 1 processing when interacting with marketing stimuli. These young people are accustomed to quickly absorbing large amounts of information on social media, where visually engaging and emotionally stimulating content dominates. Recent research supports this pattern, showing that Gen Z tends to favor heuristic cues, emotional appeals and quick judgment strategies when engaging with online marketing (Pew Research Center, 2022). Duffett and Maraule (2024) further demonstrated that Gen Z consumers are highly responsive to emotionally expressive digital elements, such as emojis, which enhance trust, engagement and purchase intention in digital marketing campaigns. As a result, guerrilla marketing techniques that are disruptive and attention-grabbing (Hussein and Al-Qaysi, 2023) may resonate more with Gen Z consumers, as they align with their generation’s preference for fast, intuitive decision making.

In contrast, Gen Y, who matured in a less digital-centric world, tends to engage in System 2 processing. They are more likely to critically evaluate marketing messages, placing greater emphasis on transparency, authenticity and consistency (Santer et al., 2023). Studies have shown that millennials – a term generally synonymous with Gen Y – prefer brand communication that is authentic, value-driven and emotionally resonant, particularly when it aligns with perceived brand sincerity and heritage (Safeer et al., 2023). Gen Y’s cognitive processing style makes them less susceptible to emotion-charged guerrilla marketing tactics (Dinh and Mai, 2016), as they may view these strategies as manipulative or lacking the trustworthiness they value in brand interactions. Therefore, the impact of guerrilla marketing on Gen Y is expected to be limited or insignificant, as they rely more on logical evaluation than on emotional appeal.

To further explain the generational differences in response to guerrilla marketing, we can draw on media richness theory, which suggests that individuals prefer different forms of media depending on how much information is needed for effective communication (Daft and Lengel, 1986). Gen Z is often drawn to media rich in sensory and emotional cues, such as video content on Instagram, TikTok and similar platforms (Stahl and Literat, 2023). According to Stahl and Literat (2023), this age group favors media formats that combine entertainment, interaction and narrative immersion. Guerrilla marketing, which often relies on unexpected, visually disruptive tactics, can be seen as an example of rich media that engages Gen Z’s preference for entertainment and emotional experiences. This cohort’s continual engagement with social media also fosters the cultural norm of sharing and interacting with eye-catching, unconventional marketing campaigns.

Gen Y, on the other hand, tends to favor media content that provides more detailed, transparent information. Their consumption of content is more utility-driven, often focused on acquiring information that helps them make informed decisions. As shown by Kopřivová and Matušínská (2023), millennials tend to be more skeptical of ambiguous or overly sensational content and instead value clarity, brand ethics and content depth in marketing messages, which is why they may respond less favorably to guerrilla marketing, perceiving it as lacking in substance or overly opportunistic. Moreover, Dangmei and Singh (2016) found that Gen Y’s information-seeking behavior is closely linked to brand loyalty and long-term evaluation. As a result, this age group may be less likely to engage with or be influenced by guerrilla marketing campaigns, as their decision-making process favors stability and reliability over boldness and disruption.

In terms of decision making, prospect theory (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979) offers another lens through which to view generational responses to guerrilla marketing. This theory suggests that individuals evaluate potential gains and losses relative to a reference point, often overvaluing potential losses against equivalent gains. For Gen Z – more risk-tolerant and drawn to novelty – guerrilla marketing might be perceived as an exciting opportunity that aligns with their preference for bold, risk-taking brands. Research has indicated that Gen Z consumers respond positively to marketing that involves surprise and entertainment, even when it challenges conventional norms (Bowo and Marthalia, 2024). The potential gains in emotional engagement and brand excitement may outweigh any mistrust of unconventional or controversial marketing tactics. Recent empirical evidence also supports this notion. Alsheikh (2024) found that a guerrilla ambience and sensational marketing tactics significantly influence both brand attitude and purchase intention, particularly when implemented in dynamic, high-traffic environments. However, for Gen Y – more risk-averse and trust-focused – guerrilla marketing may imply potential losses. This generation may perceive guerrilla marketing as a strategy that undermines brand credibility, leading to concerns about long-term trust and brand integrity. As a result, Gen Y may be less likely to engage with or be influenced by guerrilla marketing campaigns, as their decision-making process favors stability and reliability over boldness and disruption.

Understanding generational differences is crucial for crafting effective marketing strategies, particularly in contrasting Gen Z and Gen Y (millennials’) responses to guerrilla marketing. This section builds directly on the theoretical frameworks discussed earlier – dual process theory (Kahneman, 2011), media richness theory (Daft and Lengel, 1986) and prospect theory (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979) – to explain how these psychological and communicative mechanisms shape the expected outcomes.

Dual-process theory posits that information is processed through two systems: System 1 – fast, intuitive and emotionally driven – and System 2 – slow, analytical and deliberate. Gen Z, having grown up immersed in digital environments that demand rapid information consumption and emotional engagement (Pew Research Center, 2022), is more inclined to rely on System 1 processing. This makes them particularly responsive to guerrilla marketing strategies that capture attention through surprise, humor or emotional resonance. By contrast, Gen Y – who matured during the transition from analogue to digital – tends to favor System 2 processing. This cohort is more skeptical of emotionally charged or sensational content and instead values logical coherence, credibility and authenticity (Santer et al., 2023; Safeer et al., 2023; Dinh and Mai, 2016). Thus, guerrilla tactics may be met with scrutiny or distrust when they are perceived as lacking in depth or transparency.

Media richness theory adds another layer of differentiation, suggesting that communication effectiveness is determined by the richness of a medium – its ability to convey nuanced, emotional and interactive messages. Gen Z gravitates toward rich media formats – TikTok, Instagram Stories or interactive campaigns (Stahl and Literat, 2023) – that align with guerrilla marketing due to their multisensory, often experiential nature. Gen Y, however, typically prefers media that provide straightforward, detailed information to support informed decision-making (Kopřivová and Matušínská, 2023; Dangmei and Singh, 2016). While rich media might excite Gen Z, it may overwhelm or fail to convince Gen Y if it lacks clarity or substance.

Prospect theory helps further explain these contrasts in risk tolerance. Gen Z is often more open to risk-taking, novelty and unconventional brand messaging. Guerrilla marketing, with its surprising and disruptive formats, may be interpreted by this cohort as innovative and bold – characteristics that enhance emotional engagement and perceived brand authenticity (Alsheikh, 2024; Bowo and Marthalia, 2024). Gen Y, conversely, is generally more risk-averse, particularly with regard to brand trust. Guerrilla tactics may trigger a heightened sensitivity to potential losses, especially if the messaging appears misleading or ethically ambiguous (Bolton et al., 2013; Djafarova and Rushworth, 2017).

Building on these theoretical foundations, as well as empirical findings in the literature (Francis and Hoefel, 2018; Priporas et al., 2017; Dinh and Mai, 2016), we propose the following hypotheses:

H1 draws on the notion that Gen Z values emotional resonance, sensory appeal and innovative brand messaging (Priporas et al., 2017; Francis and Hoefel, 2018). Guerrilla marketing, when executed through tactics such as experiential installations, viral stunts or tactile activations (e.g. the broken glass brochure featured in this study), fits seamlessly with Gen Z’s expectations of brand engagement. Past findings (Ali, 2023; Dinh and Mai, 2016) have shown that these consumers typically respond to surprise, creativity and shareability – all hallmarks of guerrilla campaigns. The expectation is that such interactions foster deeper emotional associations with the brand, thereby enhancing trust and perceived brand value:

H2 reflects Gen Y’s concerns with message credibility, value alignment and brand authenticity. Research indicates that this cohort is less likely to be swayed by marketing that appears overly dramatic or unconventional, especially when it lacks informational clarity (Bolton et al., 2013; Dinh and Mai, 2016; Kopřivová and Matušínská, 2023). While guerrilla marketing may initially attract attention, it risks being dismissed by Gen Y consumers if it fails to meet their standards of transparency, relevance or ethical conduct (Djafarova and Rushworth, 2017; Smith, 2011). Thus, although some emotional impact may be achieved, it is unlikely to significantly affect brand trust or the performance perceptions of this group.

In sum, these hypotheses are not only grounded in empirical observations but also theoretically substantiated through a cross-disciplinary integration of psychological and marketing communication theories. This alignment strengthens the explanatory power of the study and provides a rigorous framework for interpreting the generational differences observed in response to guerrilla marketing strategies.

Due to the challenges of controlling variables in a real-world setting, a quasi-experimental design was chosen. This approach facilitates an evaluation of the impact of guerrilla marketing techniques in circumstances other than a strictly controlled laboratory environment (Goldfarb et al., 2022).

The use of a convenience sample in this study is justified by several important considerations. First, partnering with the Ghafari brand provided direct access to a highly relevant and engaged target population comprising actual customers who regularly interacted with the brand’s products. This ensured that the sample represented a target audience likely to encounter the guerrilla marketing strategies under investigation, thereby enhancing the relevance of the findings. Second, the quasi-experimental nature of the study necessitated the real-world implementation of marketing interventions through direct engagement with participants in a naturalistic setting. Given these operational requirements, adopting a probability sampling approach would have been impractical, particularly within the constraints of the study’s timeline and resources.

Third, the existing literature supports the validity of using convenience samples in exploratory research, particularly in marketing contexts, where practical considerations often take precedence over probabilistic sampling (e.g. Calder et al., 1981; Deshpande, 1983; Hulland et al., 2018; Peterson and Merunka, 2014).

Furthermore, convenience sampling has been widely recognized as an effective method for gaining initial insights into novel phenomena, such as generational differences in response to guerrilla marketing. This approach allows researchers to test theoretical frameworks and establish foundational evidence that can inform more extensive studies in the future. In this context, the convenience sample provided a practical means to explore a relatively under-researched area – namely, the intersection of generational marketing and guerrilla advertising in the unique socio-cultural environment of Azerbaijan. By capitalizing on the accessibility and relevance of the sample, this study delivers actionable insights that align with the realities of conducting consumer research in developing markets, where probabilistic sampling is often constrained by operational and contextual factors. While we acknowledge the limitations inherent in this sampling method, we contend that its use was both necessary and appropriate for the goals and scope of the current study.

The initial sample size of 240 was determined in accordance with the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) table for sample size determination, which recommended a sample size of approximately 240 for a population exceeding 600. This was supported by an online sample size calculator with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error. Therefore, 240 respondents were initially recruited to ensure statistical power and representation. The sampling strategy is in line with recent methodological practices in marketing research in emerging markets. For example, Kaluarachchi and Nagalingam (2024) adopted a similarly pragmatic approach in their study of the Sri Lankan cashew industry, in which they used Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) table to determine an appropriate sample size and implemented a structured quantitative design involving convenience sampling.

In this quasi-experimental study, the independent variable was the application of guerrilla marketing techniques. This variable refers to whether participants were exposed to guerrilla marketing strategies (experimental group) or traditional marketing practices (control group). The study investigates whether the independent variable influences the dependent variables – brand associations (trust and performance) – among Gen Z and Gen Y participants.

The study focused on a single brand, Ghafari, based in East Azerbaijan province, which produces combat sports equipment and general sportswear. The research sample consisted of 196 participants equally divided between Gen Z and Gen Y (98 participants each). These participants were further divided into control and experimental groups, with 49 participants in each group. A convenience sampling method was used to recruit participants through Ghafari’s CRM system, focusing on customers who made purchases every 6–12 months. Initially, 240 individuals expressed interest in the study, but the final sample was reduced to 196 due to participant withdrawals, incomplete responses or failure to meet the study’s standard. The demographic characteristics of the participants, including gender, age and purchase history, are detailed in Table 1.

As shown in Table 1, the study’s 196 participants reflected a reasonable gender balance (53% men) and generational segmentation (50% each in Gen Z and Gen Y). This even distribution supports the study’s objective of comparing generational responses to guerrilla marketing strategies.

Age was further broken down into four brackets, revealing a diverse range across both cohorts. A notable portion of the sample (30%) was over age 40, while 24% were under 26, ensuring representation of both younger and older ends of the spectrum. The participants also varied in terms of their purchase history: 41% reported purchases within the past 6–8 months, 27% in the last 9–10 months and 32% in the 11–12 month range. These figures suggest that the sample consisted of relatively recent consumers, making their responses particularly suitable for evaluating brand engagement and marketing effectiveness.

Overall, the demographic characteristics supported the study’s aim of understanding how generational cohorts, differentiated by age, gender and consumer experience, perceive and respond to guerrilla marketing in a rapidly evolving digital market context.

To maintain the integrity of the results, participants were unaware of the specifics of the guerrilla marketing technique or the protocol before its implementation. This ensured that their responses were unbiased.

The study used a standard brand association questionnaire developed by Ngoc Phan and Ghantous (2013), which was modified for the target population. To ensure reliability, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the questionnaire was calculated at 0.90, indicating high reliability across all variables. The questionnaire, consisting of 27 questions (five collecting demographic data and 22 focusing on brand associations), was administered both before and after applying the marketing technique, facilitating a comparative analysis of changes in brand association.

The study spanned 12 months, allowing time for the implementation of the guerrilla marketing techniques and the collection of post-test data. This timeline enabled the researchers to fully observe the effects of guerrilla marketing on brand associations over a significant period.

A two-way MANOVA was used to analyze the data, specifically focusing on two dependent variables: brand trust and brand performance. This statistical approach allowed for a thorough comparison between the experimental and control groups and a simultaneous comparison between the Gen Y and Gen Z groups, providing insights into the impact of guerrilla marketing techniques on brand association across generational cohorts.

To effectively implement the guerrilla marketing strategies for this study, we consulted with several marketing academics and experts in guerrilla marketing to develop a robust plan. The first step involved forming a close partnership with the Ghafari brand, whose management and staff were crucial to the successful execution of the campaign. Their involvement facilitated smooth coordination and allowed us to integrate the research process directly into customer interactions. One key aspect of the collaboration was having a research team member on site at the Ghafari retail outlet throughout the study. This ensured that customer data were easily accessible to the cashiers and sales staff, enabling us to track study participants in real time. When customers made purchases, their details were recorded in the store’s CRM system, and the research team seamlessly identified participants involved in the study. The centerpiece of the stealth marketing campaign was the development of an innovative advertising brochure designed to simulate a shattered car window (Figure 1).

The brochure was crafted to look like broken glass when placed on a car’s windshield, immediately capturing attention and causing customers to think their car had been damaged. Upon closer inspection, however, they discovered that the illusion was part of a marketing tactic. The brochure’s message read, “Don’t worry about the safety of your glass; the Ghafari brand protects your body with standard sports equipment.” This playful yet impactful message successfully captured attention while conveying the brand’s commitment to high-quality protective gear.

This creative tactic not only sparked curiosity but also generated a memorable experience for customers who encountered it. The design and message left a lasting impression, aligning well with the goals of guerrilla marketing to stand out in unexpected ways. The campaign’s success was bolstered by the cooperation of Ghafari’s staff, who played an active role in managing customer interactions and ensuring that the marketing materials reached the intended audience. The brochure’s innovative design and effective messaging made it an ideal fit for this study’s aim to explore the impact of guerrilla marketing on brand associations.

To evaluate the internal consistency of the scales, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated across all groups (Gen Z and Gen Y; experimental and control). Brand trust, composed of nine items, yielded an alpha of 0.80, while brand performance, based on eight items, yielded 0.82, both indicating acceptable reliability. These were subsequently aggregated into composite measures for further analysis after an exploratory factor analysis that yielded a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value of 0.92, indicating good sampling adequacy. Bartlett’s sphericity test was also significant (χ²(136) = 1089.69, p < 0.001), supporting the factorability of the correlation matrix, which endorsed the two factors. Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics, showing the mean values and standard deviations (SD) of the dependent variables split by generation and marketing condition.

To assess the hypothesized effects, a two-way MANOVA was conducted. Results revealed a statistically significant interaction effect between generations (Gen Z versus Gen Y) and intervention (experimental versus control) on the combined dependent variables, F(2,191) = 170.971, p < 0.001, Wilks Λ = 0.36. These results supported both hypotheses, confirming generational divergence in response to guerrilla marketing. Table 3 displays the between-subjects effects, showing the significance and magnitude of the main effects and interaction effects for each dependent variable.

To further illustrate these effects, Figures 2 and 3 plot the estimated marginal means of brand trust and brand performance across conditions.

As shown in Table 2 and Figures 2 and 3, brand trust and brand performance increased sharply in the Gen Z experimental group (M = 3.22 and 3.26, respectively) compared to the control group (M = 2.18 and 2.14). These substantial gains reflect the strong receptivity of Gen Z consumers to guerrilla marketing’s surprise and sensory elements. In contrast, Gen Y exhibited no meaningful change between the control and experimental conditions, with mean scores remaining close to baseline.

The generational divergence observed in our data (Figures 2 and 3; Table 4) reflects meaningful differences in media receptivity. Gen Z exhibited substantial increases in both brand trust and brand performance following exposure to guerrilla marketing, whereas Gen Y showed minimal changes. These results are consistent with findings by Sandunima and Jayasuriya (2024), who demonstrated that emotionally engaging and interactive marketing content – particularly firm-created and user-generated content on social media – significantly enhanced purchase intentions among younger consumers in emerging markets like Sri Lanka. Although their study focused on the fashionwear industry and digital platforms, the underlying mechanisms of emotional resonance and interactivity parallel those used in guerrilla marketing. In contrast, our findings diverge from Khalid (2024), who reported that Gen Y can respond positively to guerrilla tactics when a brand enjoys strong credibility. The lack of impact observed in our study suggests that the campaign’s playful but ambiguous format (e.g. the broken glass illusion) may not have conveyed sufficient trust signals to resonate with Gen Y. This interpretation aligns with Dinh and Mai (2016), who found that Gen Y’s responsiveness to unconventional advertising was contingent on the perceived credibility of the campaign.

The hypotheses proposed in this study and the corresponding results are summarized in Table 4, offering a clear overview of the generational responses to guerrilla marketing tactics and their implications for brand trust and performance.

This study identified clear generational differences in the influence of guerrilla marketing on brand trust and performance. These findings underscore the importance of considering cognitive processing styles, generational identity and media engagement preferences in evaluating the effectiveness of non-traditional marketing tactics.

The generational divergence observed in our data (Figures 2 and 3; Table 4) reflects meaningful differences in media receptivity. Gen Z exhibited substantial increases in both brand trust and brand performance following exposure to guerrilla marketing, whereas Gen Y showed minimal changes. These results are consistent with findings by Sandunima and Jayasuriya (2024), who demonstrated that emotionally engaging and interactive marketing content – particularly firm-created and user-generated content on social media – significantly enhances purchase intentions among younger consumers in emerging markets like Sri Lanka. Although their study focused on the fashionwear industry and digital platforms, the underlying mechanisms of emotional resonance and interactivity parallel those used in guerrilla marketing. In contrast, our findings diverge from Khalid (2024), who reported that Gen Y can respond positively to guerrilla tactics when a brand enjoys strong credibility. The lack of impact observed in our study suggests that the campaign’s playful but ambiguous format (e.g. the broken glass illusion) may not have conveyed sufficient trust signals to resonate with Gen Y. This interpretation aligns with Dinh and Mai (2016), who found that Gen Y’s responsiveness to unconventional advertising was contingent on the perceived credibility of the campaign.

Gen Z’s strong response aligns with previous research suggesting that this age group is particularly responsive to emotionally engaging, unconventional and visually immersive marketing formats (Francis and Hoefel, 2018; Priporas et al., 2017). The creative surprise-based brochure design used in this study matched their preferences for novelty and interactive engagement. These results are also supported by Kahneman’s (2011) dual process theory, in which Gen Z’s intuitive, emotion-driven System 1 processing dominated brand evaluation. Recent evidence from Akbiyık (2025) further supports these findings, showing that guerrilla marketing enhances perceptions of innovation and trust among younger digital-native consumers. Similarly, Badreldin et al. (2024) found that ambient and experiential guerrilla marketing significantly improved brand awareness and purchase intentions among younger demographics, especially when campaigns were unexpected and entertaining.

In contrast, Gen Y’s relatively neutral response supports earlier findings that millennials favor message credibility, clarity and brand authenticity (Dinh and Mai, 2016; Bolton et al., 2013). These consumers tended to engage in more deliberate, analytical System 2 processing (Daft and Lengel, 1986), which may explain their reduced responsiveness to marketing tactics that prioritize creativity over informative content. Khalid (2024) also observed that while guerrilla marketing can influence Gen Y’s purchase behavior, the effect is largely mediated by brand image and perceived credibility. Thus, when guerrilla campaigns are perceived as lacking ethical alignment or transparency, they may fail to build trust among this group.

Notably, the present findings challenge the assumption that guerrilla marketing is universally effective. While prior studies (e.g. Hutter and Hoffmann, 2011; Soomro et al., 2021) have emphasized the disruptive and engaging qualities of guerrilla strategies, this study revealed that their effectiveness is contingent on the generational context. Contrary to claims of broad applicability (Zarco and Herzallah, 2023), our data suggest that guerrilla marketing’s resonance is shaped by cohort-specific expectations and information processing preferences. These results underscore that, in addition to geographical and cultural segmentation, cognitive orientation and digital media fluency must be taken into account – factors often overlooked in emerging market contexts like Azerbaijan.

Our study also reinforces the theoretical framework underpinning guerrilla marketing research. For Gen Z, guerrilla tactics appeared to fulfill expectations of brand creativity and emotional engagement, making them particularly effective when measured through brand trust and performance indicators. For Gen Y, however, the same campaigns may fall short due to a perceived lack of message clarity or ethical depth. In this way, our results refined the application of media richness theory (Daft and Lengel, 1986), demonstrating that communication effectiveness improved when campaign style aligned with the cognitive and emotional expectations of the audience.

From a practical perspective, marketers should avoid deploying uniform guerrilla campaigns across generational groups. For Gen Z, strategies should emphasize immersive, emotional and playful experiences that align with fast-paced digital engagement. For Gen Y, campaigns should integrate transparent messaging, ethical cues and informational depth to promote credibility and trust. Tailoring guerrilla tactics in this way enhances not only engagement but also brand equity among distinct consumer segments.

In sum, this study enriches the existing literature by combining classical and recent perspectives to demonstrate that guerrilla marketing is not a universally effective tool – it is a context-sensitive strategy. Marketers and researchers must therefore ground their efforts in behavioral theory and generational segmentation to ensure alignment with the expectations and processing styles of their target audiences.

This study examined the effects of guerrilla marketing on perceptions of brand trust and performance among Gen Z and Gen Y in the emerging market of Azerbaijan. The findings confirmed that Gen Z responded significantly more positively to guerrilla techniques, supporting the view that younger consumers favor creative, emotionally engaging and unconventional brand communications (Dinh and Mai, 2016; Priporas et al., 2017). In contrast, Gen Y showed a more muted response, consistent with research suggesting that this cohort values transparency and rationality over surprise-based appeals (Kopřivová and Matušínská, 2023). These generational differences highlight the inadequacy of one-size-fits-all marketing. Drawing on dual process theory (Kahneman, 2011) and media richness theory (Daft and Lengel, 1986), this study verified that Gen Z is more responsive to fast, emotional processing and media-rich formats, while Gen Y relies on slower, deliberative evaluation and message credibility. Guerrilla marketing’s success with Gen Z is thus tied to its alignment with intuitive, immersive content, whereas its limitations with Gen Y suggest a mismatch with their processing preferences.

Our research contributes to generational marketing literature (Cheah and Phua, 2025) by framing guerrilla tactics in cognitive and cultural dynamics specific to developing markets. Unlike prior research that treated emerging market consumers as homogeneous, our findings revealed significant intramarket variation. Acknowledging this nuance advances the empirical understanding of how innovation in marketing must be adapted to generational traits, even within a single cultural context. From a practical perspective, marketers in Azerbaijan should apply guerrilla marketing selectively, targeting younger audiences who value emotional resonance and novelty. For older age groups, campaigns should focus on consistency, detail and brand trust. Without such differentiation, companies risk both inefficacy and reputational damage.

In sum, this study reinforces the importance of tailoring marketing strategies by generational segment – especially when using unconventional tactics like guerrilla marketing – and lays the groundwork for further research into how media habits and psychological processing shape campaign effectiveness.

This study addressed a key gap in the literature by demonstrating that consumers in emerging markets are not generationally uniform. In Azerbaijan, Gen Z and Gen Y exhibited distinct behavioral responses to guerrilla marketing. By integrating dual process theory (Kahneman, 2011), media richness theory (Daft and Lengel, 1986) and generational cohort theory, this study offers a refined view of how cognitive processing and media preferences shape responses to unconventional marketing. The research advances theory by linking generational identity to marketing effectiveness. It extends dual process theory by illustrating Gen Z’s reliance on intuitive, emotional (System 1) processing, while Gen Y prefers logical, deliberative (System 2) evaluation. This differentiation helps explain the varying impacts of guerrilla tactics across age groups. Moreover, the study adds to the guerrilla marketing literature by situating it within the socio-cultural context of Azerbaijan, where media saturation, trust concerns and youth digital habits differ from those in Western markets. This shows that effectiveness depends not just on tactics but also on audience context.

Finally, this work contributes to brand association theory by showing that unconventional marketing enhances trust and performance among younger consumers but has less traction with older cohorts. It emphasizes the need for generational segmentation and suggests that brands should align their marketing strategies with psychological and cultural characteristics to maximize their relevance.

This study shows that guerrilla marketing significantly boosts brand trust and performance for Gen Z but has a limited effect on Gen Y. These differences stem from distinct generational patterns in media use, cognition and brand expectations. For marketers in Azerbaijan and similar markets, guerrilla marketing should be tailored to generational traits. For Gen Z, it is an effective tool when designed to be bold, immersive and shareable. Campaigns should use surprise, humor and emotional storytelling – particularly with digital extensions – and align with social media use to build strong brand associations. Activations should be timed with product launches or cultural events and placed in settings relevant to Gen Z’s lifestyle, such as universities, cafés or transit hubs. These environments maximize exposure and engagement. By contrast, campaigns targeting Gen Y should emphasize clarity, value and ethical standards. Specific communication channels, such as email, in-store displays or long-form content (e.g. expert reviews), are more effective. Messaging should focus on product quality and trustworthiness.

To apply these findings, marketers must segment not just by age but by psychographic and cognitive traits. Guerrilla tactics should be used primarily for Gen Z, while Gen Y should receive conventional messaging. Campaigns must also reflect local norms and regulations to avoid cultural missteps or backlash. In mixed-generation contexts, messages should be differentiated across touchpoints. A homepage could feature engaging video content for Gen Z, while deeper product information could appeal to Gen Y. Failure to distinguish between the two risks disengaging both audiences. Ethically, guerrilla campaigns must avoid perceptions of manipulation or insensitivity. Marketers should collaborate with local stakeholders and pilot test materials while ensuring compliance with community standards.

In conclusion, guerrilla marketing offers strong potential for engaging young consumers in emerging markets – but only when executed with generational insight, cultural sensitivity and strategic precision.

Although this study provides valuable insights, it is not without limitations. First, the use of a convenience sample drawn from a single brand (Ghafari) limits the generalizability of the findings. However, a convenience sampling approach was necessary due to the exploratory nature of the research and the logistical challenges associated with conducting a quasi-experimental design in a real-world setting. Future studies could address this limitation by using probability-based sampling methods to enhance generalizability across different brands, industries and emerging markets.

Furthermore, future research could aim to replicate this study across multiple brands and industries to determine whether the observed generational differences hold in other contexts. Moreover, the 12-month duration between pre-test and post-test stages could have introduced uncontrolled external variables that may have influenced the outcomes. Cutting down the timeline or incorporating periodic testing could provide a more precise understanding of the effects of guerrilla marketing over time. Future research could also explore the psychological mechanisms driving the generational differences observed in this study. For instance, examining the role of media consumption habits, values and cognitive processing styles could offer deeper insights into why Gen Z responds more favorably than Gen Y to guerrilla marketing. Furthermore, investigating the ethical considerations surrounding guerrilla marketing and its long-term effects on brand reputation would provide a more comprehensive view of the potential trade-offs associated with this controversial strategy. The findings highlight the need for marketers to adopt an audience-specific approach when designing marketing campaigns to ensure that strategies align with the values and preferences of each target generation.