A blockchain-based system for just-in-time in construction supply chains

Efficient supply chain (SC) management is crucial for effectively accomplishing projects within predetermined budgets and timeframes in the construction industry (Benton and McHenry, 2009). However, the industry faces significant SC challenges, including uncertain materials, inefficient inventory management and the complexities of coordinating various stakeholders (Cigolini et al., 2020). As a result, these issues often lead to project delays and cost overruns, underscoring the performance of the construction supply chain (CSC). To enhance CSC performance, the Just-In-Time (JIT) concept, which originated in the manufacturing sector, particularly within the Toyota production system, has been developed for the procurement and delivery of construction materials. The JIT SC can effectively decrease inventory costs, minimize storage requirements and mitigate material wastage, offering a strong solution to long-standing challenges in CSC (Benachio et al., 2021). By adopting JIT principles, construction projects can achieve a streamlined SC that not only reduces the likelihood of material surplus and the associated financial and environmental costs but also improves overall project and stakeholder satisfaction (Harris et al., 2021).

JIT approaches inherently suffer from limitations in real-time coordination, trust and traceability, which demand advanced technological support. Traditional JIT systems leave little room for error, as minimal inventory buffers mean any delay or misinformation can disrupt production (Choi et al., 2023). Blockchain technology has emerged as a promising solution to these challenges by offering a decentralized, immutable ledger that ensures all stakeholders have timely access to accurate, transparent information, thus significantly enhancing coordination, visibility and trust across SCs (Tezel et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2023).

JIT represents both a strategic objective and an operational mechanism in CSCs, aiming to minimize waste and optimize responsiveness. Importantly, blockchain serves as an enabling technology that can reinforce JIT principles by strengthening transparency, traceability and reliability (Munawar et al., 2022). While both have distinct advantages–JIT in streamlining processes and reducing buffers, and blockchain in ensuring trustworthy and real-time information exchange–current research has yet to achieve an effective integration of the two. Particularly, critical considerations such as technological compatibility, public acceptance and organizational readiness remain underexplored in the context of combining blockchain with JIT (Liao et al., 2022). Therefore, this study will innovatively investigate the synergistic integration of blockchain technology and JIT principles to comprehensively optimize CSC performance.

Since the late 1990s, SC management has gained prominence in construction research and practice. Early studies generally emphasized supplier performance (Tan et al., 1998), intricate connections (Cox and Ireland, 2002) and analytic modeling (O'Brien et al., 2004). Due to the increasing CSC challenges–particularly their inherent complexity and unpredictability (Seggerstedt and Olofsson, 2010)–recent efforts have focused on adopting advanced techniques (Zhang et al., 2016), Industry 4.0 integration (Dallasega et al., 2018) and sustainable practices (Pushpamali et al., 2019) to meet modern construction project demands.

Although rapid advancements in CSC have occurred, the current SC management encounters significant challenges (Li et al., 2022). In the project procurement phase, suppliers deliver items after receiving payment. Financial staff from either the buyer or seller typically record transaction details, including the amount, items and date. However, the accuracy of these records can be unreliable. This problem is more evident when different parties are often responsible for buying, receiving, storing and using materials, leading to potential confusion and mismanagement. Moreover, the current approaches in CSC management often suffer from inefficiencies and a lack of transparency. Since conventional systems rely heavily on manual record-keeping and centralized databases, they frequently lead to inaccuracies, delays and fraudulent activities. Furthermore, the complexity of construction projects, involving numerous stakeholders and extensive transactions, exacerbates these issues. For instance, discrepancies in records between suppliers and purchasers can cause conflicts and impede project timelines (Turk and Klinc, 2017). Finally, the lack of real-time access to SC information hampers effective decision-making and coordination among the involved parties. Therefore, it is very necessary to create a secure, transparent and decentralized SC framework that ensures accurate and timely information sharing across all stakeholders.

JIT is a lean approach applied in CSC, focusing on delivering products precisely, thereby significantly reducing inventory costs, storage needs and lead times (Monden, 2011). Table 1 presents the key benefits of applying JIT in CSC. By minimizing inventory buffers, JIT lowers material waste, procurement expenses and mitigates risks associated with excess inventory (Benachio et al., 2021). Effective implementation of JIT leads to improved time management and efficiency, shortening project durations and turnaround times (Taghipour et al., 2019). Furthermore, JIT emphasizes quality assurance, employing ongoing quality control practices to minimize defects and maintain production standards (Siddiqui, 2022). However, successful JIT deployment in CSC demands precise coordination, cooperation and timely information sharing among stakeholders, especially as continuous replenishment is critical to ensuring resources arrive exactly as needed (Stojkanović et al., 2021).

Blockchain digitally records encrypted transactions with timestamps in a distributed ledger maintained across network nodes. Its updates require a majority consensus, ensuring transparency, security and immutability (Gao, 2023). Its decentralized design enables secure tracking of orders, payments and data. Adoption spans multiple sectors: in finance, blockchain ensures secure transactions without intermediaries (Nakamoto, 2008); in healthcare, it protects patient data and improves efficiency (Azaria et al., 2016); in energy, it supports peer-to-peer trading (Andoni et al., 2019). In SCs, blockchain captures value, items and date of transactions, improving collaboration, compliance and innovation. It fosters trust, transparency and fraud reduction (Bai and Sarkis, 2020), supports sustainability by tracking resources ethically (Jin-Hee, 2022; Xu et al., 2023), increases efficiency through smart contracts (Litke et al., 2019) and enhances financing options (Gong et al., 2023). Therefore, blockchain offers significant benefits in practice.

In CSCs, blockchain enhances management by ensuring traceability, verifying source and quality and automating procurement via smart contracts to reduce costs and errors (Afrianto et al., 2020; Li and Ye, 2020; Pilkington, 2016). Distributed ledger technology secures transactions, prevents fraud and streamlines contracts, payments and deliveries. Real-time monitoring further improves efficiency and stakeholder trust. Given the sector's complexity, blockchain offers significant potential for CSCs by strengthening logistics, collaboration and resource allocation (Pólvora et al., 2020; Liao et al., 2023). It enables real-time data sharing (Shemov et al., 2020), financial transparency (Tezel et al., 2020) and robust cybersecurity (Hijazi et al., 2021). Moreover, it fosters stakeholder synchronization across project phases. Collectively, these benefits highlight blockchain's capacity to overcome conventional CSC challenges. Yet, few studies explore how blockchain can be specifically developed to achieve JIT within CSCs.

Blockchain has been effectively integrated with JIT principles across industries, demonstrating significant improvements in efficiency, transparency and trust. For instance, in pharmaceutical SCs, blockchain-based smart contracts enabled real-time tracking and redistribution of drugs nearing expiry, reducing waste and enhancing inventory reliability (Hussain et al., 2024). Similarly, in the dairy industry, a blockchain-enabled two-echelon JIT system successfully provided real-time shelf-life tracking and automated inventory transfers, reducing spoilage and enhancing traceability (Nadime et al., 2023). Beyond traditional SCs, Zhou et al. (2021) explored blockchain applications within decentralized finance (DeFi), showing how real-time data availability and blockchain-enabled automation facilitate timely execution of profit-generating transactions. These cross-sector experiences highlight blockchain's capacity to address JIT limitations, such as fragmented information, traceability gaps and coordination challenges, thus offering valuable insights for CSCs.

Figure 1 presents the systematic research methodology employed in this study. A systematic literature review was utilized across three major databases: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Xplore (IEEE Xplore), ScienceDirect and Scopus, due to their broad coverage of high-quality peer-reviewed studies in engineering, computing and construction management. By employing a combination of “just-in-time”, “construction supply chain” and “blockchain” in “all field”, peer-reviewed articles published between 2010 and 2025 were identified and screened in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) peer-reviewed journal or conference papers published in English between 2010 and 2025; (2) research explicitly addressing blockchain and/or JIT applications in SC management; and (3) studies situated in construction or similar project-based industries. A total of 48 publications were finally selected. The PRISMA process is presented in  Appendix.

To develop a blockchain-based CSC system tailored to JIT, a structured brainstorming session was held with ten experts from academia and industry, conducted virtually to ensure diverse perspectives. Mind mapping captured ideas systematically, while the nominal group technique prioritized system requirements, producing actionable insights and enhancing framework validity. The prototype was built on Hyperledger Fabric (HF), selected for its permissioned network and smart contract (chaincode) capabilities to support transparent procurement and efficient coordination. An iterative design process, refined through expert feedback, guided the system's architecture and functions. A case study on a large-scale Australian construction project was then undertaken to evaluate system performance. Data were collected via structured interviews with the project, construction and procurement managers. Assessment focused on inventory reduction, time efficiency, quality assurance and overall CSC effectiveness, thereby validating the blockchain-based JIT framework.

Figure 2 depicts the key objectives for implementing JIT in CSC, consisting of inventory reduction, time reduction, quality assurance and production and transportation efficiency. First, inventory reduction is accomplished by implementing dynamic replenishment and fostering efficient coordination throughout SCs. This ensures that resources are readily accessible at the exact time they are required, hence minimizing any surplus inventory. Second, time reduction aims to optimize efficiency by utilizing real-time data analysis and implementing lean manufacturing principles, resulting in streamlined operations and decreased lead times. Third, quality assurance is upheld by stringent quality control methods and ongoing improvement mechanisms, guaranteeing elevated standards and minimizing defects. Finally, the coordination among SC partners and the implementation of process automation enhance production and transportation efficiency, leading to improved overall operational efficiency and reliability. Therefore, this framework outlines the key objectives for a successful JIT system, demonstrating how these features can significantly improve the efficiency, transparency and responsiveness of the CSC.

Figure 3 presents a blockchain-enabled framework for CSC, where procurement and delivery processes are structured to improve reliability, transparency and overall effectiveness. The cycle begins with identifying project needs through strategic analysis, which distinguishes between organizational priorities and specific procurement requirements. This is followed by the planning phase, where objectives, evaluation criteria and procurement methods are clearly defined to align with broader organizational goals. Subsequently, the market engagement phase is conducted through a “public chain” platform, ensuring open access, transparent bidding and fair competition among suppliers (Kelly et al., 2021). This mechanism enhances accountability and encourages value-driven procurement decisions. Once bids are evaluated and the most suitable partner is selected, contractual agreements are formalized. The delivery of goods or services is then monitored via a “private chain,” which provides secure oversight of contractual compliance, quality assurance and performance monitoring. The structured separation between the public and private chains highlights blockchain's dual role: ensuring external market transparency while safeguarding internal operational integrity. This integration not only strengthens supplier trust and reduces risk of opportunistic behavior but also enhances logistical coordination and resource traceability across the entire CSC cycle. Therefore, blockchain implementation offers a comprehensive mechanism for maintaining the integrity of construction procurement, supporting both fairness in market engagement and efficiency in project execution.

Figure 4 depicts the incorporation of blockchain into JIT systems, highlighting its crucial function in improving CSC management. Key stakeholders encompass a range of individuals and entities, such as clients, builders, subcontractors, suppliers, owners and laborers. These parties employ blockchain for a range of purposes, including the implementation of smart contracts for real-time monitoring and order management, decentralized inventory management and transparent tracking of transactions.

Figure 4 also outlines twelve crucial functions that blockchain can specifically provide to meet the four key objectives of JIT in CSC. By embedding blockchain, the first objective of reducing inventory can be achieved through F1 (smart contract automated replenishment), F2 (decentralized inventory management) and F3 (finance transparency). For instance, in F1, material procurement and supply contracts can be signed timely so that the inventory can be replenished automatically, thereby reducing excess stock. F2 aims to decentralize inventory management, enabling efficient handling and distribution of resources across various locations. F3 provides clear, accurate and accessible information about the financial performance relevant to materials and inventory. Secondly, the objective of time reduction can be achieved through F4 (instant settlements), F5 (decentralized authentication) and F6 (SC tracking and traceability). These functions allow all activities to be completed in real time and facilitate in-time operations via the blockchain platform. Thirdly, production and transportation efficiency can be improved by activating F7 (asset sharing), F8 (production process automation) and F9 (cross-industry collaboration platform). Finally, the objective of quality assurance can be enhanced through F10 (product authenticity verification), F11 (quality compliance recording) and F12 (feedback and improvement mechanism). The three functions foster continuous improvement through robust quality control mechanisms. Thus, these twelve blockchain functions support the achievement of the four JIT objectives for all CSC participants.

The process of incorporating blockchain to implement JIT in the CSC lifecycle is shown in Figure 5. The twelve functions of blockchain, F1-F12, can be embodied in the whole lifecycle. The process begins with requirement identification and market research, which are essential for accurately defining the needs of an organization and understanding the external market environment. Requirement identification involves determining the specific needs and goals of a project or organization, ensuring that all procurement activities align with these objectives. Market research is implemented by analyzing current market conditions, identifying potential suppliers and assessing the availability and pricing of required goods or services. Then, the process moves to internal approval, tender document preparation and tender issuance.

In the early stages of bid collection and evaluation, decentralized authentication (F5) verifies supplier identities and credentials, ensuring secure and reliable selection. The process then moves to negotiation and supplier selection, supported by instant settlements (F4), which allow rapid transaction processing once bids are accepted. Upon finalizing supplier choice, contract signing and purchase order confirmation trigger smart contract automated replenishment (F1), streamlining procurement under predefined conditions. During production monitoring, decentralized inventory management (F2) provides real-time visibility of stock levels, while product authenticity verification (F10) ensures that materials meet required standards and contractual specifications. Logistics and transportation are managed through production process automation (F8) and supply chain tracking and traceability (F6), which document material provenance for transparency and accountability. Simultaneously, asset sharing (F7) enables efficient use of logistical resources among stakeholders. On receipt and inspection of goods, quality compliance recording (F11) validates material quality and contract adherence. For payment, supply chain finance transparency (F3) ensures clear and trustworthy financial transactions. Performance evaluation incorporates a cross-industry collaboration platform (F9), enabling multi-stakeholder engagement and alignment with SC demands. Finally, feedback and improvement mechanisms (F12) support continuous enhancement, with blockchain maintaining immutable records of lessons learned and refinements.

The public chain platform indicated in Figure 3 for the market and tender process is shown in Figure 6. HF was selected, as its permissioned nature ensures secure and transparent transactions, making it ideal for environments where data privacy and specific access controls are critical. Additionally, its capacity to support smart contracts allows for automating and streamlining SC processes, which is vital for implementing JIT operations effectively in the construction sector.

In the realm of blockchain systems, the interplay between on-chain protocols and the codebase exemplifies the seamless integration of technology and procurement processes. This synthesis is evident in the juxtaposition of the tender release and bidding process with structural and operational aspects of blockchain chaincode, as delineated in the smart contract framework for public ledger-based tendering, shown in Figure 6. This public blockchain is available to all potential stakeholders such as bidders. Commencing with the initiation phase, clients and designers orchestrate the tender release, embedding specifications, blueprints and quantitative assessments into the digital fabric of the blockchain. The platform thus becomes the nexus for tender dissemination and bidder engagement, preserving the integrity of the tendering intent through its immutable, chronological ledger entries.

Subsequent to the tender announcement is the bidding process, ingeniously captured within the chaincode's “SubmitBid” function. Herein, bidders' proposals are not only submitted but are also cryptographically sealed within the blockchain, ensuring a transparent and immutable audit trail. The ingenuity of the “SubmitBid” function lies in its utilization of the transaction context for identity affirmation, thus augmenting the accountability of the bidding process.

As the tendering narrative progresses to bid evaluation, the chaincode's “GetBids” query interface is instrumental in retrieving and juxtaposing bids from the distributed ledger. This operation is not merely a data retrieval task, but a comprehensive audit process facilitated by the blockchain's extensive key space exploration capabilities. Each bid, once retrieved, is subject to a structured and objective evaluation, with historical performance data of suppliers, retrieved from the platform, providing empirical evidence for bid adjudication. The culmination of the tendering process is embodied in the contract awarding phase, whereupon the evaluation's conclusion, contract particulars are crystallized and electronic signatures are affixed, thus immortalizing the agreement within the platform. The “TenderContract” and “Bid” data structures serve as the architectural foundation for this phase, underscoring the importance of data consistency and the ease of information retrieval.

Figure 7 depicts a private blockchain platform designed primarily to improve internal logistics and CSC operations (as shown in Figure 3). The private blockchain system is mainly for the owner who manages the CSC process. The system incorporates various elements, including quality control and decision-making procedures, by containing data pertaining to quantity estimates, tender documents and bank reports within each block. This framework not only ensures the protection of confidential data but also enables the monitoring of activities in real-time and the automation of important procedures, therefore enhancing productivity and minimizing mistakes throughout the whole SC.

Commencing with owner-defined objectives, this blockchain-based platform digitizes essential CSC data–including specifications, quantities and architectural details–for efficient supplier selection. As the SC progresses, the system's adaptability to currency fluctuations and trade policies reflects global dynamics. Central to this blockchain is a sequence of cryptographically secured blocks, ensuring immutability and reliability. These blocks store vital records such as quality checks, decision logs and quantity assessments, serving as trust nodes. Additionally, the blockchain orchestrates logistics operations–covering goods inspection, transportation and predictive tracking–enhancing efficiency. Labor attendance integration quantifies human capital, aligning workforce resources with digital solutions. Consultative input from subcontractors and consultants is incorporated seamlessly, promoting collaboration and comprehensive SC management.

Culminating in the “Report progress” phase, the flowchart demonstrates the system's capacity to synthesize the data accrued across all stages, producing insightful outputs for the owner's review. This final juncture of reporting is emblematic of the system's overall productivity, where the entire gamut of activities is distilled into actionable intelligence. Embedded within this blockchain architecture is an implicit nod to the burgeoning discourse on distributed ledger technology, where each transaction, each block and each ledger entry forms part of a grander vision for SC modernization. Ultimately, three outcomes were generated: recommendations, decisions and evaluations.

Figure 7 also presents Go code – articulated for the HF platform–exemplifies a substantive framework that meticulously translates the operational nuances of CSC logistics into a blockchain paradigm. The “SupplyChainContract” struct, underpinning the chaincode, inherits the functions requisite for managing diverse aspects of the CSC, thus acting as the nexus of the blockchain application. Each element within the chaincode– “Item”, “LaborAttendance”, “FinancialInstitutionDetail”, “SubcontractorDetail”–reflects a distinct facet of CSC operations. The “Item” struct, specifically, digitizes the tangible attributes of supply goods, encompassing quality, quantity and associated designs, thereby facilitating an immutable ledger record that bolsters traceability and quality assurance. Labor management is rendered through the “LaborAttendance” structure, wherein worker participation metrics are captured, providing an indelible record of workforce efficiency and enabling data-driven management decisions. Moreover, the “FinancialInstitutionDetail” and “SubcontractorDetail” structs encapsulate critical fiscal data and subcontractor performance metrics, respectively, ensuring a comprehensive depiction of financial health and operational efficacy within the blockchain’s ledger. The functional prowess of the chaincode is demonstrated through its transactional methods. “CreateItem” not only captures the essence of the goods but also ensures that every new entry is etched into the platform, reflecting the system's adaptability to accommodate an evolving inventory. Similarly, “RecordLaborAttendance” and the addition of financial and subcontractor details elucidate the chaincode's capacity to amalgamate complex data sets into a streamlined, decentralized database. The “main” function encapsulates the operational readiness of the chaincode, signaling its capacity to seamlessly initiate and process transactions within the CSC.

A real case study from a warehouse construction project in Canberra, Australia, was employed to demonstrate the potential application of the proposed system outlined above. This project was chosen because it represents a typical large-scale construction SC scenario and the research team had direct involvement in it, affording comprehensive access to project data and stakeholders. The project data is presented in Table 2. It outlines detailed logistics for various structural steel materials used in the project, including material identity (ID), type, quantity, estimated and actual delivery times, as well as estimated and actual assembly completion times. To evaluate the proposed blockchain system's potential benefits, three senior managers from the project (the project manager, construction manager and procurement manager) were invited to participate. These individuals were selected for their diverse roles and substantial experience, ensuring that feedback was gathered from different key perspectives of project execution and SC management.

As the project kicked off, steel materials like columns and mezzanine floor framing, listed in Table 1, were cataloged in the ledger with an “initledger” function, setting an initial status of “null”. Sequential updates through “orderPC,” “producePC,” “transportPC,” and “deliverPC” functions chronicle the journey of each material type, ensuring a lean inventory that responds in real-time to the project's demands. This blockchain system could mitigate the risk of overstocking. For example, in this case, although the 3.65 tons of mezzanine floor framing were delivered ahead of schedule, installation could only proceed as planned, resulting in unnecessary inventory costs.

The blockchain system enables stakeholders to perform real-time queries for immediate retrieval of PC information, facilitating prompt timeline adjustments and seamless operational integration, as illustrated by the transportation details of steel materials in Table 1. For instance, the early completion of roof deck framing, initially scheduled for 16/07/2023 but delivered by 13/08/2023, is instantly recorded in the ledger, allowing managers to swiftly realign tasks to maintain schedule adherence. Leveraging such real-time data, as exemplified by the management of 81.76 tons of roof and wall framing, ensures dynamic adjustments between supply and construction phases, confirming the model's effectiveness in enhancing operations and rapidly addressing project changes.

The implementation of blockchain for quality assurance in the project involved several key steps. This process included initializing the project with “go mod init steel-material-chaincode” and organizing dependencies with “go mod tidy”. The chaincode was then packaged using “peer lifecycle chaincode package steel_material.tar.gz --path ./chaincode --lang golang --label steel_material_v1” and installed with “peer lifecycle chaincode install steel_material.tar.gz”. The testing of the chaincode included recording quality checks and updating transport status. For instance, the quality check for steel material was recorded using the command “peer chaincode invoke -o orderer.example.com:7,050 --peerAddresses peer0.org1.example.com:7,051 --tlsRootCertFiles/path/to/tls/ca.crt -C mychannel -n steel_material_chaincode -c” {“function”:“RecordQualityCheck”,“Args”:[“SMT001”,“500 MPa, Carbon Steel”]}”. Through these steps, we have effectively executed and validated the blockchain network to ensure the quality of the project.

According to Coyle et al. (2016) and Heizer and Render (2016), a comparative analysis of key performance metrics before and after the adoption of blockchain can be used to assess the tangible effects of blockchain on improving efficiency in production and transportation. The metrics encompass average transportation delay time, average production downtime, real-time data visibility and scheduling adjustment response time. The findings, as shown in Table 3, highlight the notable enhancements in efficiency achieved through the implementation of blockchain in CSC management.

In summary, the developed blockchain-based CSC system can provide its potential efficacy in implementing JIT, which is also confirmed by the case project experts. It enables the seamless integration of real-time data, enabling prompt monitoring and administration of products, which results in considerable reductions in waste and unproductive time. The inherent immutability and openness of blockchain technology offer accurate and up-to-date data that improve decision-making processes. In addition, the utilization of smart contracts guarantees uniform and regular updates and transactions throughout CSC, fostering synchronization. Furthermore, the decentralized nature of blockchain enables the flexibility required to promptly respond to changes in demand or supply. Therefore, the developed system can optimize JIT delivery.

The central contribution of this study lies in its dual-level innovation across both theory and application. Theoretically, this research presents the first comprehensive mapping between blockchain and JIT operational objectives in CSC. At the systems level, it introduces and validates a replicable and deployment-ready architecture tailored to CSCs. Furthermore, it offers a structured framework for exploring blockchain–JIT convergence in fragmented CSC processes, thereby laying a foundational system for broader industry adoption and academic exploration. For example, future studies could further investigate the scalability, integration, cost-efficiency and data governance challenges of the platform through the following ways:

1. Develop simulation models to assess implementation costs and return on investment.

2. Test system performance across diverse project sizes and stakeholder networks.

3. Translate the framework into a robust software architecture, mapping JIT processes to smart contract logic.

4. Apply the system in varied project contexts, such as prefabrication or large-scale infrastructure, to assess adaptability.

In practice, the proposed blockchain-based system provides a pathway for implementing JIT principles in CSC while minimizing disruption to ongoing operations. Practitioners can enhance JIT outcomes by:

1. Integrating blockchain with Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and procurement systems to automate workflows and ensure data consistency.

2. Implementing permissioned blockchain networks to track material quality and clarify stakeholder accountability.

3. Deploying site dashboards to enable real-time visibility of inventory and deliveries.

4. Extending the prototype framework in collaboration with IT teams to develop a full-scale platform.

Therefore, these actions collectively facilitate the alignment of blockchain-enabled functionalities with JIT goals, enhancing CSC coordination without disrupting ongoing project operations.

This study contributes to the digital transformation of CSCs by proposing an integrated framework that combines blockchain technology with JIT supply strategies. In response to growing industry demands for transparency, synchronization and inventory reduction, the research develops a blockchain-based system that aligns twelve core blockchain functionalities with the four primary goals of JIT. Leveraging the dual capabilities of public and private chains via HF, the system prototype demonstrates a structured and scalable approach to managing procurement, logistics and assembly activities. Empirical validation through a real-world case study confirms the system's potential to reduce transport and production delays, enhance real-time scheduling responsiveness and strengthen coordination across SC actors.

While this study offers valuable insights, it contains limitations that call for further studies to validate the efficacy of the system across different project types and scenarios. Future research should concentrate on developing adaptable consensus methods and establishing standardized deployment practices, which could boost the wider adoption of blockchain in the construction industry, especially for JIT in CSC. Another direction for future research would involve enhancing the blockchain-based CSC by exploring advanced consensus algorithms, devising protocols for proof-of-delivery and proof-of-quality inspections and integrating blockchain with established enterprise systems.