Bridging knowledge gaps in agri-food sustainability: stakeholder perspectives on transforming vocational education and training in Ireland

The escalating impacts of global climate change have intensified the urgency to transform food systems towards sustainability. In response, the European Union (EU) Green Deal sets out a roadmap to achieve climate neutrality by 2050, positioning sustainable food systems as a cornerstone of this transition. Through the Farm to Fork Strategy, the EU seeks to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 55% by 2030 while fostering a clean, resource-efficient, and competitive economy (European Commission, 2020a; Dekeyser, 2025). The Farm to Fork Strategy adopts a holistic, systems-based approach that addresses sustainability challenges across the entire food chain from primary production and processing to consumption and waste management. Framed as an integrated policy initiative, it recognises the interdependence of environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability, emphasising that meaningful transformation requires coordinated action across all stages of the food value chain rather than isolated interventions (European Commission, 2020a;Riccaboni et al., 2021).

The European agri-food sector is a cornerstone of the global food market, accounting for over €220bn in exports in 2023 and supporting more than 9 million farms (Eurostat, 2024a). However, it remains a significant contributor to environmental degradation, responsible for approximately 34% of the EU’s total GHG emissions (Dekeyser, 2025). This dual role as both an economic driver and an environmental challenge underscores the critical need for integrated sustainability policies and cross-sectoral education that bridge the gap between production efficiency and ecological responsibility (Klein, 2022).

Within this European context, Ireland’s Food Vision 2030 outlines a national pathway for sustainable transformation across agriculture, fisheries, forestry, and the food and drink industry [Department of Agriculture, Food and Marine (DAFM), 2025a]. The agri-food sector remains a vital component of the Irish economy, contributing approximately 9% of total goods exports, 6% of gross national income, and 6.5% of total employment (DAFM, 2025b). Ireland’s reputation for producing high-quality and traceable food products is internationally recognised, with exports growing by over 60% since 2010 (DAFM, 2025a). However, intensified production has led to substantial environmental pressures. In 2022, Ireland recorded the fifth highest total GHG emissions in the EU and ranked second for per capita emissions (CSO, 2025). Food and packaging waste also remain persistent challenges, with Irish households and industries generating 835,000 tonnes of food waste in 2023, exceeding the EU average per capita (Eurostat, 2024b; EPA, 2025a). Such statistics highlight the urgency of rethinking Ireland’s food systems through sustainability education, innovation, and behavioural change.

National strategies such as the Waste Action Plan for a Circular Economy (2020–2025) and Food Vision 2030 aim to halve food waste by 2030, ensure all packaging is recyclable or reusable, and decouple economic growth from environmental degradation (EPA, 2025b). Achieving these ambitious goals will require substantial innovation and the creation of a more knowledge-intensive agri-food industry, underpinned by education, training, and lifelong learning opportunities (DAFM, 2025c). Research has increasingly emphasised the need to embed sustainability competencies into agri-food education curricula, ensuring that learners possess not only technical expertise but also systems thinking, ethical reasoning, and collaborative problem-solving skills (Rehman et al., 2023).

The vocational education and training (VET) sector is particularly well positioned to lead this transformation due to its flexibility and close alignment with industry needs. By integrating sustainability principles into agri-food curricula and fostering partnerships with enterprises, research bodies, and communities, the VET sector can promote contextualised, practice-oriented learning that directly supports Ireland’s transition to a circular and low-carbon food system (Kurtsal et al., 2024). Strengthening the knowledge base of current professionals and enhancing public awareness through accessible VET learning opportunities will be crucial to cultivating a culture of sustainability across all stages of the food system (Carton et al., 2016; Jack et al., 2014).

Recent research has increasingly highlighted significant knowledge and skills gaps within the agri-food sector in the context of sustainability transitions (Gil-Castell et al., 2023; Kurtsal et al., 2024; Dutta et al., 2023). For example, the SUSTAGRI4.0 project identified substantial gaps in sustainability, digitalisation, and entrepreneurship competencies among agri-food stakeholders, particularly within VET systems, emphasising the need for targeted and practice-oriented training approaches (Gil-Castell et al., 2023). Similarly, studies examining education and training policies in the agri-food and forestry sectors highlight that current systems are not evolving sufficiently to meet emerging sustainability demands, with a growing need for interdisciplinary and competency-based approaches aligned with policy frameworks such as the European Green Deal and Farm to Fork Strategy (Kurtsal et al., 2024). Research also points to the importance of reskilling and upskilling within the sector, particularly among younger cohorts, to support sustainable transitions and address evolving environmental and societal challenges (Dutta et al., 2023). Earlier work has likewise emphasised the critical role of innovation and skills development in enhancing the capacity of the agri-food sector to respond to change (Jack et al., 2014). Collectively, these studies underscore the central role of education and training systems particularly VET in addressing sustainability related knowledge and skills gaps. Frameworks such as the European GreenComp framework (Bianchi et al., 2022) further emphasise the importance of sustainability competencies, highlighting the need for education and training systems, including VET, to align with these emerging competence domains. However, limited research has explored how diverse stakeholders within the agri-food sector conceptualise these gaps in practice and how such insights can inform the design of VET programmes.

Building on this identified research gap, the present study examines how sustainability-related knowledge, skills, and competencies are conceptualised by stakeholders across Ireland’s agri-food sector and how these perspectives can inform vocational education and training (VET). While existing sustainability competency frameworks, such as GreenComp, provide important conceptual guidance, less attention has been given to how sustainability competencies are interpreted and negotiated across stakeholder groups operating within specific vocational and sectoral contexts. Specifically, this study aims to:

• explore stakeholder perspectives on sustainability challenges within the Irish agri-food sector;

• identify key knowledge gaps and competencies required to support sustainability transitions; and

• examine how these insights can inform the design of VET programmes.

By examining how sustainability competencies are understood across differing stakeholder perspectives, the study seeks to provide insight into how sustainability learning may be operationalised through more contextually grounded and practice-oriented approaches within agri-food VET systems.

This qualitative study was conducted as part of an Erasmus + funded Key Action 2 (KA2) project Train to Sustain (Project No. 2023–1-IE01-KA220-VET-00156916) led by Atlantic Technological University (ATU), Galway, Ireland in partnership with The Confederazione Italiana Agricoltori Toscana (CIA, Toscana), Italy, The Education Agency for Development and Innovation (IDEA), Lomza, Poland and The Biotehniski Centre Naklo, Slovenia. The project team comprised researchers from ATU involved in the Train to Sustain project, bringing together expertise in vocational education, agri-food systems, and sustainability, and contributing to the design and facilitation of the research study. Semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted with key stakeholders from Ireland’s agri-food industry.

Participants were invited to engage in open discussion centred around four key pillars of food sustainability:

1. food waste management;

2. food production;

3. farming practices; and

4. food packaging.

These thematic pillars were used as a discussion framework for the focus groups, enabling participants to reflect on key sustainability challenges and opportunities across different stages of the agri-food system. The study was designed to address the research aims by eliciting participants’ perspectives on food sustainability and identifying practical strategies that could be integrated into VET programmes to address sustainability challenges within the agri-food sector.

Data were collected through a focus group interview approach, which entails bringing together small groups of individuals to engage in structured yet open-ended discussions on predetermined topics (Gawlik, 2017). This qualitative method was selected for its capacity to foster interactive and dialogic exchanges, encouraging participants to share, debate, and build upon one another’s ideas. Such an approach is well established in environmental and sustainability research for its effectiveness in generating rich, contextually grounded insights (Kidd and Parshall, 2000; Boermans et al., 2024).

The project team recruited participants representing diverse roles across Ireland’s agri-food system, including educators, farmers, food entrepreneurs, sustainability practitioners, and policymakers. Focus groups were composed to include a mix of stakeholder perspectives to facilitate cross-sector dialogue. Given the study’s objective of eliciting insights on food sustainability from agri-food stakeholders, purposive sampling strategy was used to identify individuals with relevant expertise and experience (Patton, 2002). To further enhance the diversity and representativeness of the participant group, snowball sampling was subsequently used to identify additional relevant stakeholders through participant networks (Noy, 2008).

Participants were invited to take part via email correspondence and through established communities of practice within the sector. Supplementary recruitment efforts were undertaken through social media platforms, including Instagram and X (formerly Twitter), to extend outreach and achieve an adequately varied sample size.

The study received ethical approval from the ATU Research Ethics Committee (Ref. No. REC_ATUDG_24_0049). All focus group procedures adhered to recognised ethical standards. Prior to participation, individuals were provided with an information sheet outlining the purpose, procedures, and confidentiality of the research, and written informed consent was obtained. To protect participants’ privacy, all data were anonymised during collection, analysis, and reporting.

Four semi-structured focus groups were convened to enable the inclusion of a diverse range of stakeholder perspectives while maintaining manageable group sizes that facilitate interactive discussion. The discussion guide was structured around four sustainability pillars: food waste management, food production, farming practices, and food packaging, ensuring that discussions addressed sustainability challenges across the agri-food value chain. In addition, the discussion guide was designed to elicit stakeholder perspectives on knowledge gaps, skills needs, and the role of VET in supporting sustainability transitions within the sector.

Within each pillar, participants were invited to reflect on current practices, barriers to sustainability, and potential strategies for improving environmental outcomes within the agri-food sector. For example, participants were asked questions such as “What role does consumer education and behaviour change play in minimising food waste in the agri-food sector?”, “What innovations in food production could help agri-food businesses meet rising demand while minimising environmental impacts?” and “What knowledge and skills are needed within the agri-food workforce to support sustainability, and how can VET address these needs?”. These questions encouraged participants to reflect on the knowledge and competencies required to support innovative and sustainable practices. These prompts facilitated dialogue while allowing participants to introduce additional perspectives and experiences relevant to sustainability transitions within the sector. This approach facilitated a comprehensive exploration of agri-food stakeholders’ perspectives on the sustainability challenges and opportunities within the Irish agri-food sector.

Each focus group lasted approximately 90 min and was conducted in person. Participants were organised into discussion groups to encourage interaction between different stakeholder types across the agri-food system. Each session was facilitated by members of the ATU research team who guided the discussion using a semi-structured guide and ensured balanced participation across participants. Facilitators encouraged contributions from all participants and monitored group dynamics to avoid dominance by any single stakeholder group.

The discussions began with questions relating to existing practices that enhance the sustainability of the agri-food sector. Participants were subsequently encouraged to consider potential strategies and innovations that, if integrated into agri-food business operations, could mitigate environmental impacts. Additional questions invited reflections on the role of consumer education and behavioural change in reducing food waste, as well as participants’ perceptions of the effectiveness of government and industry regulations in promoting circular economy principles. Participants were also invited to reflect on how VET could support sustainability transitions and address identified knowledge and skills gaps within the sector.

To ensure analytical richness, detailed field notes were taken throughout each session to capture contextual information, participant interactions, and emerging reflections. These notes provided supplementary qualitative depth, aiding the interpretation of the transcribed focus group data.

A reflexive thematic analysis was undertaken following the six-phase framework developed by Braun and Clarke (2006, 2021). This approach was selected for its capacity to balance analytical rigour with interpretive flexibility, enabling the identification of both semantic and latent patterns within complex qualitative data.

Following data preparation, transcripts from the four focus groups were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. The analysis was guided by the study objectives while remaining flexible and iterative, identifying patterns and meanings through close engagement with the data set. In Phase 1, the lead researcher familiarised themselves with the data through iterative reading of the transcripts and systematic note-taking to capture initial impressions and analytical observations. During Phase 2, meaningful units of text were coded to label data segments relevant to the research questions. In Phase 3, these codes were collated into potential subthemes, supporting the interpretive development of patterns of shared meaning and patterns across the data set. Multiple analytical meetings were conducted by the research team to collaboratively explore patterns across the data set, reflect on interpretive assumptions, and refine the developing thematic structure. Consistent with Braun and Clarke’s reflexive thematic analysis approach, the researchers recognised that their professional backgrounds in sustainability, vocational education, and agri-food systems shaped engagement with the data and interpretation of meaning. Analytical discussions therefore supported reflexive interpretation and consideration of alternative readings of the data set rather than seeking coding consensus alone.

In Phase 4, the research team reviewed and refined these preliminary themes to ensure internal coherence and external distinctiveness, thereby strengthening the interpretive depth and analytical clarity of the developing thematic structure The research team constructed a thematic map to visualise the relationships between themes and subthemes and to facilitate an integrated understanding of the data’s overall narrative. While the focus group discussion guide was informed by existing sustainability and VET literature, the analytical process remained flexible and reflexive. Consistent with Braun and Clarke’s reflexive thematic analysis approach, themes were developed through iterative engagement with participant accounts and the interpretation of patterns of shared meaning across the data set rather than through the application of predetermined competency frameworks. Phase 5 focused on further refinement and definition of the themes, clarifying their central organising concepts and interpretive significance in relation to the research aims.

Finally, during Phase 6, detailed analytical writing was conducted for each theme. This involved synthesising key data extracts, aligning interpretations with the original research questions, and constructing a coherent narrative that reflected participants’ collective perspectives on food sustainability. The research team considered that the data set provided sufficient depth and diversity of perspectives to address the study objectives. The thematic structure of the focus group discussions informed the early stages of coding, Credibility was strengthened through collaborative discussions within the research team and iterative engagement with the data set, which supported reflexive interpretation and theme development.

A total of 26 participants took part in the four focus groups, comprising 18 females and 8 males. The cohort represented a diverse range of professions across the Irish agri-food sector, including educators, food entrepreneurs, climate action specialists, sustainability experts, and restaurateurs.

The analysis identified four main themes reflecting participants’ collective insights into education, policy, stakeholder engagement, and innovation as drivers of sustainable transformation in the agri-food sector. The findings reflect key barriers and facilitators influencing sustainability transitions within the agri-food sector. While some themes highlight structural and behavioural barriers, others identify enabling factors such as education, innovation, and stakeholder collaboration. The four themes identified were (1) educating for sustainability: building knowledge, awareness, and behavioural change, (2) policy and structural supports, (3) stakeholder engagement and (4) innovation as a driver of transformation in the agri-food sector.

Consistent with Braun and Clarke’s reflexive thematic analysis approach, the themes identified reflect the research team’s interpretive analysis of how stakeholders understood sustainability challenges, knowledge gaps, and sustainability transitions within the agri-food sector. Collectively, the themes highlight the interconnected influence of educational, structural, economic, and socio-political factors shaping sustainability practices and learning within the food system.

Each theme comprised several subthemes. Educating for Sustainability: Building knowledge, awareness, and behavioural change, included four subthemes:

1. knowledge gaps as barriers to sustainable behaviour;

2. gaps in formal education;

3. integrating sensory learning to enhance food sustainability; and

4. expanding informal learning pathways for wider stakeholder engagement.

Policy and Structural Supports encompassed three subthemes:

1. policy frameworks to incentivise sustainability;

2. empowering consumers and businesses to act sustainably; and

3. developing infrastructure to enable sustainable choices.

Stakeholder Engagement was broken down into three subthemes:

1. fostering inclusive stakeholder participation;

2. stakeholder collaboration develops agency; and

3. understanding stakeholder sustainability priorities.

Finally, Innovation as a driver of transformation in the agri-food sector consisted of two subthemes:

1. innovating food packaging and;

2. alternative models of food production.

Table 1 presents a summary of the themes, subthemes, and illustrative insights, providing a transparent overview of the analytical outcomes.

This captures how participants positioned education as central to addressing sustainability knowledge gaps, behavioural change, and long-term transformation within the agri-food sector. It identifies key barriers related to gaps in sustainability knowledge and awareness across the agri-food sector. A consistent pattern across stakeholder accounts was the perception that sustainability transitions are constrained by gaps in both formal and informal sustainability education. Participants frequently framed education as central to developing the knowledge, awareness, and behavioural capacities required to support sustainable practices across the agri-food sector. The absence of sustainability knowledge as a major barrier to behaviour change. This deficit was described as twofold encompassing both a lack of understanding of how to act sustainably and limited awareness of the broader environmental impact of current practices. As one participant explained, education must “promote awareness of practices benefits and impacts”, while another stressed the need to bridge awareness and application: “Sustainability: try educating people on doing this”. Participants perceived the current provision of sustainability education in schools as inadequate, particularly concerning food packaging and waste. One participant stated, “Should be taught in schools about food packaging, buying 3 for 2 without thinking”. Others noted that the lack of experiential and sensory learning in the curriculum inhibits students’ ability to assess food freshness and thus contributes to waste: “Food education in schools: none involves the senses”, which was described as a “barrier to trust in food”.

The inclusion of sensory skills in food education was viewed as an essential yet overlooked component of sustainability learning. Participants suggested that teaching individuals to use their senses to determine food freshness could reduce waste and build consumer confidence “Using sensory more to smell food, education around it”. Participants also emphasised the need for sustainability education to extend beyond formal schooling to reach all agri-food stakeholders. “Peer-to-peer learning” was identified as a valuable approach to knowledge exchange and awareness-raising, especially for those in retail and business contexts. As one participant noted, “Retail, for example, selling chicken breast in 1 kg packet with short expiry date [is] not practical”, illustrating the importance of practical, real-world learning opportunities.

Collectively, these accounts positioned sustainability learning as experiential, socially embedded, and closely connected to practical engagement within the agri-food system.

This theme reflects how stakeholders frequently framed sustainability transitions as dependent upon broader policy, infrastructural, and governance conditions. The analysis identified broader policy and infrastructural conditions as central to stakeholder understandings of sustainability transitions within the agri-food sector. Across the focus groups, participants consistently highlighted frustrations with fragmented governance structures, limited incentives, and insufficient structural supports for sustainable practice. There was a strong call for a unified, island-wide policy approach, reflected in one comment: “Drive for a dedicated All-island approach”. Some also advocated for institutional restructuring to prioritise sustainability at the national level: “A dedicated food minister separate [from] the agriculture minister”. Participants highlighted the absence of incentives for sustainable practices, noting that “non-sustainable companies can undercut them”, leaving those pursuing sustainability economically disadvantaged. Participants stressed that both consumers and businesses face barriers to making sustainable choices and emphasised the need for targeted support mechanisms that simplify sustainable behaviours: “Make it easier for people”. Packaging was identified as a specific barrier to consumer engagement, “Packaging can be off-putting to some people if it looks hard to open”. Others underscored the vulnerability of small producers to global market forces, advocating for policies that “protect small producers and not leave it to market forces”. Infrastructure was viewed as a foundational element of sustainability. As one participant asserted, “You need the infrastructure all around you”. The absence of localised systems, such as refill markets and community food hubs, was described as a key constraint preventing sustainable choices. Participants advocated for increased investment in “local food hubs” and “refill markets” to reduce waste and support local economies.

These accounts suggest that sustainability transitions were frequently understood as dependent upon wider structural and governance supports rather than individual behaviour change alone.

This theme reflects both barriers and facilitators, highlighting tensions between stakeholder priorities as well as opportunities for collaboration. The analysis identified stakeholder engagement and competing sustainability priorities as a central organising theme within discussions of sustainability transitions. Participants consistently framed collaboration, inclusion, and shared responsibility as necessary conditions for advancing sustainability within the agri-food sector, while also highlighting tensions between economic, environmental, and social priorities. Engagement was perceived as essential for fostering shared responsibility, agency, and collaboration across sectors, while also revealing diverse sustainability priorities that must be reconciled. Some participants noted that certain stakeholder voices, particularly those of students and local communities, are often excluded from sustainability initiatives. For example, one participant observed that “food in schools [is] wasted because lunches students do not like [are] provided”. Others emphasised the importance of involving communities through initiatives such as “urban farming, community gardens, [and] initiatives with children”, to embed sustainability practices at the local level. Collaborative engagement was viewed as essential to fostering a sense of agency and ownership in sustainability efforts. Participants referred to positive examples of successful partnerships, such as “new pilot farming that’s going on with Teagasc”, and called for collective policy frameworks like an “All-Ireland food strategy not an export business model”. These examples were seen as key to moving beyond fragmented, top-down approaches. Participants also acknowledged that sustainability priorities differ across stakeholder groups and that these differences must be acknowledged in policymaking and practice. For instance, food business stakeholders expressed concern about the financial viability of sustainability: “How do you do this and still stay in business”? Conversely, participants, speaking as consumers, prioritised environmental outcomes over cost: “The cost is high but would definitely only consider going to some businesses” that are sustainable. These contrasting perspectives highlight a key tension within sustainability transitions in the agri-food sector. While consumers increasingly prioritise environmental responsibility, producers and food businesses must simultaneously navigate economic pressures and market competitiveness. This divergence illustrates the complex trade-offs inherent in sustainability transitions and suggests that educational initiatives and policy interventions must consider both environmental aspirations and economic feasibility when promoting sustainable practices.

Across stakeholder groups, sustainability priorities were framed through differing economic, environmental, and social concerns, highlighting the negotiated nature of sustainability within the agri-food sector.

The analysis identified innovation as a recurring pattern of shared meaning across stakeholder accounts, with participants frequently positioning technological, community-based, and systems-oriented innovation as necessary for addressing sustainability challenges within the agri-food sector. Discussions centred on the role of technological, process-based, and community-driven innovations in addressing sustainability challenges. Participants identified the need for innovation in packaging design, emphasising “innovations around labelling” and a “move away from petroleum-based packaging” towards biodegradable materials. Within the hospitality sector, participants suggested practical solutions such as “small tastings being done in restaurants to prevent waste” and “pre-order systems so customers only cook and eat what they order”. Innovation in local food production was also viewed as vital to achieving sustainability. Participants advocated for community-based initiatives, including “local co-op veg gardens” and “delivery of veg boxes”, which prioritise feeding local populations over expansion for export. They also reflected on the inefficiencies caused by cosmetic standards “some retailers and buyers do not want to purchase veg if they are not the correct shape” and suggested creative reuse strategies such as “pickling” or producing “tomato ketchup from excess” to reduce waste and extend product lifespan.

Innovation was therefore conceptualised not only as technological advancement, but also as a systems-oriented strategy for supporting sustainability transitions within local food systems.

Across all four themes, participants underscored the interconnected roles of education, policy, stakeholder engagement, and innovation in advancing food sustainability in Ireland. The study suggest that sustainability transitions in the agri-food sector are shaped not only by knowledge gaps but also by structural constraints and differing stakeholder priorities. While many participants recognised the need for sustainability transformation, tensions emerged between environmental ambitions and the economic realities faced by producers and food businesses. These dynamics highlight the need for integrated educational, policy, and industry approaches that address both behavioural change and systemic barriers within the food system.

This study examined the perspectives and experiences of stakeholders within the Irish agri-food sector to identify practical strategies for embedding sustainability within VET programmes. Sustainability competencies within the agri-food sector can also be interpreted through the lens of transformative and systems-oriented sustainability learning, which conceptualises sustainability learning as relational, context-dependent, and socially negotiated rather than purely technical (Mezirow, 2000; Wiek et al., 2011; Bianchi et al., 2022). From this perspective, sustainability transitions require not only knowledge acquisition but also shifts in values, institutional practices, and collaborative capacities across the agri-food system. The findings provide valuable insights into the enablers and barriers influencing the sustainability of food systems in Ireland and reaffirm the central role of education emphasised in UNESCO’s Education for Sustainable Development roadmap (UNESCO, 2020) in empowering individuals to make informed and responsible choices. Within the European context, this research aligns with broader policy initiatives such as the European Commission’s Green Comp framework (Bianchi et al., 2022), which highlights sustainability competencies as core to lifelong learning. The framework identifies key competencies including systems thinking, futures thinking, and collaborative problem-solving as essential for supporting sustainability transitions. The stakeholder perspectives captured in this study emphasise practical sustainability knowledge, behavioural change, and collaborative learning, which closely align with these competency domains and highlight the relevance of GreenComp for guiding curriculum development within agri-food VET programmes.

While existing research has emphasised the importance of sustainability competencies and education frameworks in supporting agri-food transitions, this study extends that work by providing empirically grounded insights into how these competencies are understood, prioritised, and negotiated by diverse stakeholders within the sector. Stakeholder perspectives reflected differing economic, environmental, and educational priorities, suggesting that sustainability competencies are contextually negotiated rather than universally understood. This reinforces the need for practice-oriented approaches to sustainability learning within VET systems.

Participants underscored the importance of education across the entire food chain from production to consumption if Ireland is to establish itself as a leader in sustainable food systems. This aligns with the view that education is a catalyst for behavioural and cultural transformation in sustainability transitions (Barth and Rieckmann, 2012), shaping both individual behaviours and the broader social and institutional contexts in which policy and innovation occur. As highlighted in the focus groups, marketing practices such as multi-unit promotions (“3-for-2” offers) were perceived to drive consumer over-purchasing and waste, consistent with recent behavioural evidence demonstrating that promotional pricing increases household food waste (Gravert and Mormann, 2025; Messner et al., 2021). Psychological research further supports this finding, where consumers facing quantity-based promotions often prioritise economic value over sustainable consumption (Graham-Rowe et al., 2014; Porpino, 2016). Collectively, these perspectives suggest that sustainability knowledge gaps within the agri-food sector are not simply informational deficits, but are linked to the limited integration of experiential and applied sustainability learning across both formal and informal educational contexts. Participants’ emphasis on sensory learning, peer exchange, and practical engagement indicates that sustainability competencies are understood as socially and contextually embedded forms of knowledge rather than purely technical competencies. This reinforces the importance of practice-oriented and transformative approaches to sustainability learning within VET systems.

Stakeholders argued that sustainability education must not only raise awareness but also foster the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values necessary to translate awareness into sustained behavioural change. This aligns with research positioning education as the most powerful mechanism for promoting responsible consumption and production patterns (Dunne et al., 2024;Priefer et al., 2016). In VET contexts, this necessitates the use of experiential, project-based, and competence-oriented pedagogies that link classroom learning with industry and community practice, an approach consistent with SDG 4.7’s emphasis on transformative education for sustainability. Studies have shown that households with stronger planning and reuse competencies produce significantly less food waste (Stancu et al., 2016), and that trained food service workers generate less waste than untrained peers (Montesdeoca-Calderón et al., 2024). Hennchen (2019) further demonstrated that professional knowledge, both technical and tacit, can either reinforce or challenge unsustainable routines within food production systems. Collectively, these findings illustrate the interconnectedness of actors across the food system and the potential of education to address sustainability challenges at multiple points of intervention.

Despite widespread recognition of education’s potential to drive sustainable development (Findler et al., 2019; Radinger-Peer and Pflitsch, 2017), participants expressed dissatisfaction with current food sustainability curricula, particularly at the primary and post-primary levels. Similar critiques appear internationally, where food education remains dominated by nutritional and health discourses, often neglecting systems thinking and environmental impacts (Darmody, 2022). Participants also noted the absence of sensory learning, echoing McCloat and Caraher (2020), despite evidence from Mustonen et al. (2009) and Ronto et al. (2016) that sensory education enhances students’ ability to assess food quality and reduce waste. This aligns with the concept of “embodied learning”, where sensory and affective engagement deepen cognitive understanding of sustainability issues (Gruenewald, 2003).

In addition to reforming formal curricula, the study highlights the need to value informal and lifelong learning as essential components of sustainability competence development. Adult and vocational education scholarship emphasises that peer-to-peer learning and communities of practice can effectively diffuse innovation and strengthen adaptive capacity among practitioners (Mochizuki and Bryan, 2015; Wenger, 2000). These insights reinforce calls for integrated learning systems where formal, non-formal, and informal pathways interact to sustain behavioural change and innovation. Farmers with higher education levels and access to continuous learning opportunities are more likely to adopt sustainable technologies and management practices (Caffaro and Cavallo, 2019; O’Donoghue and Heanue, 2018). VET therefore occupies a strategic position to integrate both formal and non-formal learning pathways, promoting lifelong learning ecosystems that foster collaboration across producers, educators, and communities (Wenger et al., 2002).

Participants expressed frustration with the fragmented policy landscape and lack of targeted, practical support mechanisms for sustainable practice. Although the Food Vision 2030 strategy aspires to make Ireland a world leader in sustainable food systems (DAFM, 2025a), participants reported limited awareness and weak alignment between national objectives and stakeholder realities, a disconnect also noted in recent policy analyses (Kenny et al., 2024; Kurtsal et al., 2024). These findings echo wider research showing that fragmented governance structures can impede coherent sustainability transitions (Horlings and Marsden, 2011; Loorbach, Frantzeskaki and Avelino, 2017), creating structural barriers that hinder the alignment of environmental and economic objectives. Addressing this challenge requires multi-level governance frameworks that combine national vision with local adaptability. This extends prior research by highlighting how policy fragmentation is experienced in practice by stakeholders and how this directly shapes the feasibility of sustainability education and training interventions. The study further suggests that sustainability transitions within the agri-food sector are experienced not only as educational challenges but also as governance and infrastructural challenges. Participants frequently described sustainability practices as difficult to operationalise where environmental ambitions were poorly aligned with economic realities, market pressures, and institutional supports. This highlights how sustainability competencies alone may be insufficient without broader structural conditions that enable sustainable practice.

Infrastructure deficits were also highlighted as barriers to sustainable practice. Participants cited the scarcity of local food hubs and water refill centres as barriers to waste reduction. This resonates with international research demonstrating that consumer recycling and reuse behaviours are strongly influenced by infrastructural accessibility (Stern, 2000; Barr et al., 2001; Muranko et al., 2021). For example, Bartolotta and Hardy (2018) found that the density of water-refill stations directly increased reusable bottle use, while Thomas and Sharp (2013) documented how investment in recycling infrastructure in the UK increased household participation from 30% to 90% within a decade. These examples underscore that infrastructure, and education must operate synergistically to embed sustainable practices as habitual behaviours.

Meaningful stakeholder engagement emerged as a key enabler for promoting collaboration in sustainability transitions. Participants emphasised the value of partnerships between research institutions, such as Teagasc, and the VET sector to foster innovation and community-based learning. This finding supports recent scholarship asserting that transdisciplinary collaboration is essential to address complex sustainability challenges (Valley et al., 2018; Higgins et al., 2024).

While the focus groups revealed a shared recognition of the need for sustainability transitions within the agri-food sector, differences in priorities between stakeholder groups were also evident. Industry actors, including producers and food business representatives, frequently emphasised the economic feasibility of sustainability practices and the need to remain competitive within existing market structures. In contrast, participants speaking from consumer or community perspectives often prioritised environmental responsibility and ethical food systems, even where these might involve higher costs. Educators, meanwhile, tended to emphasise knowledge development and behavioural change through education. These differing perspectives highlight the complex trade-offs involved in sustainability transitions and reinforce the importance of multi-stakeholder dialogue when designing VET programmes and policy interventions.

Sustainability within the agri-food sector therefore did not emerge as a singular or universally shared agenda, but was shaped by stakeholders’ differing positionalities, priorities, and experiences within the food system. These tensions illustrate how sustainability competencies must often be negotiated across competing social, environmental, and economic priorities rather than applied as universally transferable constructs. This interpretation also aligns with critical perspectives within Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) scholarship, which caution against framing sustainability challenges primarily as issues of individual behaviour or competency deficits while overlooking the broader structural and political-economic conditions shaping unsustainable systems (Jickling and Wals, 2008; Sterling, 2011). Across the focus groups, participants frequently identified barriers extending beyond individual knowledge gaps, including market pressures, fragmented governance structures, infrastructural limitations, and economic constraints within food production systems. This suggests that sustainability transitions within the agri-food sector require not only competency development but also critical engagement with the systemic conditions that enable or constrain sustainable practice.

In VET education, fostering engagement through community-based pedagogies such as service learning and place-based education enables students to connect theoretical understanding with practical, locally relevant applications (Rehman et al., 2023; Gramatakos and Lavau, 2019). Such approaches encourage co-creation of knowledge between students, educators, and community partners, aligning with the broader movement towards transformative sustainability learning (Sterling, 2011; Wals and Corcoran, 2012). Participants also revealed that differing sustainability priorities across stakeholder groups must be acknowledged in engagement strategies. In particular, consumers increasingly value environmental responsibility in their food choices (Rahmani et al., 2019;Ornelas Herrera et al., 2025). Understanding and reconciling these priorities is central to implementing equitable and inclusive sustainability policies (Dengerink et al., 2021).

Participants identified innovation as a cornerstone of sustainable transformation in Ireland’s agri-food industry, echoing European and UN frameworks positioning science and innovation as key levers for achieving the sustainable development goals (UN, 2021; European Commission, 2020a). They discussed innovations such as biodegradable packaging, dynamic food labelling, and improvements in production and handling systems to reduce waste (Pennanen et al., 2013; Attard and O’Connor, 2019), along with localised food production models that prioritise circularity and community resilience. Importantly, innovation was conceptualised by participants not only in technological terms but also through community-based and systems-oriented approaches that prioritised localisation, circularity, adaptive reuse, and community resilience. However, participants also acknowledged that the successful implementation of such innovations depends on broader structural supports, workforce capabilities, infrastructure, and enabling policy conditions.

However, innovation in the agri-food sector depends on the availability of a skilled workforce. Persistent skills gaps in digital literacy, sustainability, and whole food systems thinking remain significant barriers (Hanel, 2007; Ramalho Ribeiro et al., 2023; Leal Filho et al., 2024). Initiatives such as Ireland’s Human Capital Initiative (HEA, 2023) and the European Skills Agenda (European Commission, 2020b) have emphasised these competencies as essential for green growth, highlighting the opportunity for VET to lead this transformation. The VET sector’s inherent flexibility positions it to address these needs through targeted, accessible programmes including online and blended learning platforms that support upskilling and reskilling across the workforce (Carton et al., 2016; Kurtsal et al., 2024). Developing such adaptive learning systems will be critical to achieving the ambitions of Food Vision 2030 and Ireland’s broader green transition.

While several themes identified in this study relate to broader structural and policy challenges within the agri-food system, a number of insights are particularly relevant for VET, outlined in Table 2. Stakeholders consistently highlighted the need for improved sustainability literacy, practical skills development, and applied learning opportunities that connect education with industry practice. These insights point to a specific role for VET providers in translating sustainability principles into applied competencies that can support sustainability transitions within the agri-food workforce.

Taken together, the findings suggest that sustainability transitions within the agri-food sector involve more than the development of technical sustainability knowledge alone. Across the focus groups, participants consistently highlighted the interconnected influence of governance structures, market conditions, infrastructure, stakeholder priorities, and community engagement in shaping sustainable practice. Sustainability competencies were therefore understood not as fixed or universally transferable skills, but as contextually negotiated and shaped by the social, economic, and institutional realities of the agri-food system. These findings reinforce the importance of systems-oriented and contextually grounded approaches to sustainability learning within VET.

The findings of this study carry important implications for VET practice and curriculum design. In response to stakeholder concerns regarding limited practical sustainability knowledge and weak links between education and industry practice, VET programmes could introduce modules focused on circular food systems and food waste reduction, where learners analyse waste streams and develop practical strategies for minimising food loss within food businesses. Reflecting stakeholder concerns regarding packaging waste and consumer engagement, VET programmes could also include modules on sustainable packaging innovation, allowing learners to explore biodegradable materials, packaging lifecycle impacts, and design solutions for reducing packaging waste. Experiential learning initiatives such as community-based food system projects or collaborations with local food hubs could provide learners with opportunities to apply sustainability principles in real-world contexts. In addition, modules focused on sustainable farm management and regenerative agriculture practices could support learners in developing practical competencies aligned with emerging sector needs. In addition to curriculum design, integrating sustainability within VET programmes requires consideration of assessment and certification mechanisms. Embedding sustainability competencies within programme learning outcomes and assessment frameworks would allow learners to demonstrate applied knowledge in areas such as sustainable production practices, circular resource management, and responsible consumption. This approach would support the formal recognition of sustainability competencies within vocational qualifications. Importantly, these examples illustrate how stakeholder informed insights can be translated into concrete VET interventions, addressing a gap in existing research which often lacks operational guidance for curriculum design

Embedding sustainability within VET requires participatory and transformative pedagogies supported by collaboration with industry, policymakers, and community stakeholders. Approaches such as sensory learning, food waste reduction initiatives, and place-based projects can strengthen the connection between theory and practice. Integrating systems thinking and interdisciplinary learning across food production, environmental management, and circular economy principles can further support the development of critical and adaptive competencies. Alongside this, flexible lifelong learning pathways will be essential to support upskilling and reskilling across the agri-food workforce.

Overall, this study reinforces the view that the transition to sustainable food systems requires a systems approach integrating education, policy, stakeholder engagement, and innovation (Wiek et al., 2011). Participants’ insights confirm that while awareness of sustainability is increasing, persistent structural, educational, and policy barriers constrain action. While these recommendations present valuable opportunities for strengthening sustainability within VET systems, their implementation may face challenges, including limited curriculum space, resource constraints, and the need for professional development to support educators in delivering sustainability-focused learning. Strengthening partnerships between VET institutions, industry stakeholders, and policymakers will therefore be essential to ensure that sustainability competencies can be effectively integrated into vocational training programmes.

The findings also have important implications for policymakers seeking to support sustainability transitions within the agri-food sector. Participants highlighted the need for coordinated policy frameworks that support education, innovation, and stakeholder collaboration across the food system. Policymakers could support these efforts by promoting sustainability competencies within vocational education frameworks, incentivising industry education partnerships, and supporting initiatives that encourage sustainable production and consumption practices. Such interventions could help create enabling conditions for the development of a sustainability-oriented workforce within the agri-food sector.

This study contributes to sustainability education and VET research in three important ways. First, it provides empirically grounded insight into how sustainability competencies are differently understood and prioritised across stakeholder groups within the agri-food system. Second, the findings highlight how tensions between environmental ambitions, economic viability, and institutional constraints shape the operationalisation of sustainability within VET contexts. Third, the study extends existing competency-based sustainability frameworks by illustrating how sustainability learning must be contextually negotiated through stakeholder-informed and practice-oriented approaches rather than applied as universally transferable competencies. In doing so, the study contributes to bridging the gap between conceptual sustainability competency frameworks and their implementation within real-world agri-food systems.

While this study offers valuable insights into how VET can advance sustainability within Ireland’s agri-food sector, there were some study limitations. First, the relatively small sample size and qualitative design limit the generalisability of the findings beyond the specific stakeholder groups represented. As recruitment relied partly on professional networks and snowball sampling, participants may have been more positively engaged with sustainability issues than the wider agri-food population. Consequently, perspectives that are more sceptical of sustainability transitions or less engaged with sustainability initiatives may be underrepresented within the data set. The study was conducted within the Irish context, and while Ireland provides a useful case for examining VET’s role in sustainability transitions, structural, cultural, and policy differences across countries may influence the applicability of these findings elsewhere. Although the study included participants from diverse areas of the agri-food system, certain stakeholder perspectives may remain underrepresented, limiting the transferability of findings across all areas of the sector. In addition, the perspectives captured reflect a snapshot in time within a rapidly evolving policy landscape shaped by initiatives such as Food Vision 2030 and the European Green Deal. Future research could therefore benefit from longitudinal or comparative studies that examine how sustainability competencies evolve within VET systems over time and across national contexts. It should also explore the implementation of co-designed sustainability curricula in VET institutions, assessing their impact on learner outcomes and industry practices. Expanding stakeholder engagement to include learners, policymakers, and community partners from diverse regions would enrich the evidence base and help identify transferable models for embedding sustainability across European VET systems.

This study explored stakeholder perspectives on sustainability challenges within Ireland’s agri-food sector, identified key knowledge and skills gaps, and examined how VET can support sustainability transitions. Grounded in the principles of ESD and transformative learning theory, the findings highlight that sustainability transitions are shaped by a combination of knowledge related, structural, and behavioural factors, including gaps in sustainability awareness, the need for experiential and applied learning, and differing priorities across stakeholder groups. By capturing perspectives across the agri-food value chain, the study provides empirical insight into how sustainability challenges are understood in practice and how these insights can inform the design of VET programmes that support sustainability transitions.

Significant knowledge and skills gaps persist across the food chain, constraining the adoption of sustainable practices. Education and training therefore represent powerful levers for transformation, equipping learners and professionals with the competencies required to navigate complex sustainability challenges. To address these gaps, the VET sector must act as a catalyst for transformative learning by embedding sustainability across curricula, governance, and professional practice. Strengthening lifelong learning mechanisms and peer-to-peer learning can further promote the diffusion of sustainable innovations across the agri-food ecosystem. These findings demonstrate that addressing sustainability challenges requires not only increased knowledge but also the development of practical competencies, systems thinking, and collaborative approaches across the sector.

The study also underscores that realising Ireland’s sustainability ambitions depends on coherent policy frameworks, adequate infrastructure, and strategic investment in human capital. Innovation, both technological and social will be essential, supported by targeted upskilling and reskilling initiatives that align with emerging competencies in digitalisation, circularity, and the bioeconomy. By linking stakeholder identified challenges to sustainability competencies and VET practices, the study contributes to bridging the gap between theory and practice in sustainability education.

Ultimately, advancing a sustainable agri-food future for Ireland requires integrated collaboration among educators, policymakers, industry, and communities. By positioning sustainability education at the core of vocational training and fostering innovation through inclusive VET learning ecosystems, Ireland can build the human and institutional capacities necessary to achieve the ambitions of Food Vision 2030, the European Green Deal, and the Sustainable Development Goals.