Social skills and learning competences in university students: a study of the mediating effects of academic motivation and emotional intelligence Open Access

Social skills (SS) are abilities that are acquired through social interaction and learning, enabling effective communication and coexistence. These abilities include verbal and non-verbal responses that facilitate the capacity to convey needs, preferences, feelings and ideas. Further, they encourage respect towards the behaviours of others and the resolution of specific issues, minimising future conflict. Multi-dimensional in nature, social skills are essential for basic human development (Gismero-González, 2002; Ütkür-Güllühan, 2021).

In relation to this, the socialisation process is fundamental to human development, and therefore, it is essential to learn social skills to perform suitably in different life settings and effectively relate to the environment. This evidences the importance of education not being exclusively focused on academic teaching but also on the development of socio-emotional competences (Vázquez et al., 2024).

The importance of social skills also stems from their capacity to improve learning competences in students, enabling them to adequately address the diverse needs and challenges that arise in the educational setting. Trainee teacher learning competences entail a broad spectrum of knowledge, skills and attitudes that help them to prepare themselves to effectively carry out their duties (García-Pérez et al., 2021).

These competences include technical and methodological aspects and methodologies, such as the capacity to apply knowledge in practical situations, solve problems and adapt to new circumstances. The combination of technical, methodological and generic competences is essential for teachers to meet the demands of modern education, encourage active and meaningful learning and promote student development. Other variables can also impact the development of learning competences in trainee teachers including academic motivation and emotional intelligence (Álvarez et al., 2021; Ballová-Mikušková et al., 2024).

Emotional intelligence development is fundamental for achieving both professional and personal success. Therefore, within the educational context, it is essential for students to acquire emotional skills to adapt adequately to the school environment. The theoretical model of Mayer and Salovey has been pivotal in emotional intelligence research, emphasising the need to assess the emotional dimensions of attention, clarity and repair (Fernández-Berrocal and Extremera-Pacheco, 2005; Mayer and Salovey, 1997).

Motivation is a determining psychological factor pertaining to the academic development of students with regards to the processes that initiate, guide and sustain behaviours related to learning. Active motivation guides behaviour, increasing the likelihood of achieving goals, such as finishing higher education. In this way, it drives people to continue learning and studying in the face of increasing challenges and difficulties (Kotera et al., 2022).

Understanding these motivational processes is crucial, as they are central to the self-determination theory by Deci and Ryan, which posits that higher levels of self-determined motivation are associated with better psychological health and more effective learning and performance outcomes (Sánchez-Bolívar et al., 2025; Ryan and Deci, 2000).

Thus, for trainee teachers, understanding and promoting motivation in their future students will be essential, given that students may have less intrinsic motivation due to various barriers (Radil et al., 2023; Zou et al., 2023).

Further, motivation impacts job satisfaction and the retention of teaching staff. More motivated teachers have greater psychological well-being and face a lower risk of leaving their posts or taking sick leave due to mental health issues. Motivation also helps to create better social relationships, facilitating connections through higher levels of social competence (Ballová-Mikušková et al., 2024; Fung and Chung, 2021).

On the other hand, emotional intelligence implies the capacity to recognise, understand and manage one’s own emotions, in addition to the emotions of others. This ability is fundamental for teachers, given that it enables them to manage stressful situations, resolve conflict effectively and create an emotionally safe environment for their students. This ability is essential for teachers, given that evaluating and improving emotional attention, clarity and repair enables better management of personal emotions and interaction with others, favouring healthy relationships (Khassawneh et al., 2022; Martínez-Martínez et al., 2022).

Social skills not only enable effective communication and coexistence but also facilitate the expression of needs and feelings, help resolve issues and minimise future conflict. The development of social skills directly contributes to the improvement of learning competences in trainee teachers, enabling them to effectively take on challenges in the educational setting (Ballová-Mikušková et al., 2024; Ütkür-Güllühan, 2021).

In light of that mentioned above, working on social skills strengthens academic motivation and emotional intelligence, determinants that may further improve one’s capacity to acquire learning competences. This development not only strengthens competences in teachers but is also particularly beneficial in different contexts, where these abilities are vital for promoting social cohesion and academic success in students (Majali, 2020; Sánchez-Bolívar et al., 2022).

In this sense, social skills are essential for teaching practice, with empathy and the capacity to build trusting relationships being pivotal. Teachers must be capable of motivating their students, managing their own emotions and those of their students and developing the learning competences that enable them to develop the skills needed to support their students to overcome their challenges and achieve academic and personal success (Vela-Jiménez et al., 2022).

Learning competences are particularly important for trainee teachers, given that they need to master these competences not only for their own professional development but also to teach and promote these abilities in their students. In educational contexts, teachers must be able to adapt their teaching strategies in order to support students who face multiple challenges, promoting inclusive and equitable learning (Peláez-Fernández et al., 2021).

Likewise, motivated individuals are more likely to actively participate in learning, persist in the face of challenges and employ effective learning strategies. For teachers, understanding and promoting academic motivation in students is essential, especially in contexts in which students may have lower intrinsic motivation due to different causes. It also serves to highlight that emotional intelligence enables teachers to manage better the emotional complexities faced by students from disadvantaged backgrounds.

The main aim of the present research was to examine the effect of social skills (x) on learning competences (y) in university students, whilst considering the mediating role of academic motivation (m₁) and emotional intelligence (m₂). Specifically, the study sought to:

1. Determine the direct relationship between social skills and learning competences (LC);

2. Examine the way in which academic motivation (Mtv) mediates the relationship between social skills and learning competences;

3. Assess the mediating role of emotional intelligence (EI) in the relationship between social skills and learning competences and

4. Explore the serial multiple effect of social skills on learning competences via academic motivation and emotional intelligence.

In accordance with the main study aim, the following hypotheses were proposed:

The methodological design on which the present study is founded is commonly known as a correlational-predictive design and is of a cross-sectional nature. This design focuses on examining the relationship between variables and serves to establish predictions according to shared variance. In the context of the mediational model proposed, a serial multiple mediation model was suggested in order to explore the way in which social skills (x) influence learning competences (y) through academic motivation (m1) and emotional intelligence (m2). This design is suitable when the aim is to examine relationships and associations between variables without manipulating them (Figure 1).

The sample was selected through probabilistic sampling according to clusters. It comprised 533 ^[1] students undertaking degrees in primary education and early childhood education at the La Inmaculada Teaching Centre affiliated with the University of Granada and primary education and early childhood education and pedagogy degree at the Faculty of Education Sciences at the University of Granada at the time of conducting the present research. Finally, the actual sample from which the data pool was drawn decreased to N = 520 due to the attrition of 13 students.

With regards to sample distribution, 58.85% (N = 306) belonged to the primary education degree, 19.42% (N = 101) were undertaking the early education degree and 21.73% (N = 113) were enrolled in pedagogy. A total of 74.81% (N = 389) of the sample were females, whilst males made up 24.42% (N = 127) and 0.77% (N = 4) reported their gender as “other”. Further, 49.42% (N = 257) were first-year students, 24.42% (N = 127) were second-year students, 22.88% (N = 119) were third-year students and 3.27% (N = 17) were fourth-year students (Figure 2).

Next, the variables making up the present research are presented. To this end, the individual role of each variable in the model is explained, together with its operational description.

1. Social skills (predictor x). Social skills are understood as a set of interpersonal behaviours that enable individuals to interact effectively and appropriately in diverse social situations.

2. Learning competences (dependent variable y). This refers to the capacity of students to learn and utilise knowledge, skills and attitudes in an effective way in the formative context.

3. Academic motivation (mediator 1). This is defined as the internal force that drives students to actively involve themselves in their learning process, pursue academic objectives and maintain interest and commitment towards their studies.

4. Emotional intelligence (mediator 2). This is defined as the capacity to recognise, understand and manage one’s own emotions and those of others.

In order to measure and assess the emotional intelligence of students, the trait meta-mood scale-24 (TMMS-24) conceived by Fernández-Berrocal et al. (2004) was chosen. This is based on the TMMS, which focuses on the abilities possessed by individuals to attend to, discriminate and repair their emotional states. This questionnaire comprises three key dimensions of emotional intelligence, which are each composed of eight items: perception (items 1–8), understanding (items 9–16) and regulation (items 17–24). Responses are rated along a five-point Likert scale.

The academic motivation scale (Vallerand et al., 1992) was used. This estimates motivation in students via 28 items, with responses being provided along a seven-point Likert scale. This tool comprises seven dimensions, with each being composed of four items. Namely, the dimensions encapsulated are intrinsic motivation to know (items 2, 9, 16 and 23), intrinsic motivation towards accomplishment (items 6, 13, 20 and 27), intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation (items 4, 11, 18 and 25), extrinsic motivation/external regulation (items 1, 8, 15 and 22), extrinsic motivation/introjected regulation (items 7, 14, 21 and 28), extrinsic motivation/identified regulation (items 3, 10, 17 and 24) and amotivation (items 5, 12, 19 and 26).

The social skills questionnaire (CHS-A) conceived by Salas-Bermudes et al. (2020) was selected. This instrument comprises 15 items that measure psychometric properties through three factors: assertiveness, via six items (items 2, 7, 8, 11, 13 and 17); conversation, via five items (items 4, 6, 10, 12 and 15) and self-regulation, via four items (items 3, 5, 14 and 16).

The basic competences of university students scale (CBAU) conceived by Chiva-Sanchis et al. (2021) was selected. This scale is composed of four dimensions with creative analysis, resolution and arguing comprising seven items; criteria-based assessment and communication, comprising three items; evaluation as a learning process, comprising two items, and teamwork, comprising two items.

University lecturers were directly contacted in order to explain to them the study aims and request their permission to administer the study questionnaire to students in their classes. The questionnaires were administered during the academic year 2023–2024. Prior to questionnaire administration, participants were ensured that their participation would be entirely voluntary and anonymous, and they were reassured that they could decide not to participate without any type of negative repercussion. The present research adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and by the University of Granada’s Ethics in Human Research Committee and was approved with reference number 4334/CEIH/2024.

With regards to data analysis, with the aim of examining the hypotheses proposed at the study's outset, a serial mediation analysis was performed using the programs JASP (version 0.18.3; JASP Team, 2024) and SPSS using the PROCESS macro (version 4.2; Hayes, 2022). These two programs were used due to the opportunities they provide when it comes to complementing outputs.

Bootstrapping was selected as the parameter estimation method, with 1,000 replications and bias-corrected percentile type. The maximum likelihood (ML) approach was taken for estimations in both programs. Finally, standard errors were calculated based on the delta method in the case of JASP. Results produced in relation to estimated parameters and all other complementary statistics are presented below.

Next, Table 1 presents outcomes produced regarding parameter estimates pertaining to direct effects, followed by total effects and path coefficients (a₁₁, a₂₁, b₁₁, b₁₂ and c₁₁), and, finally, Table 2 illustrates outcomes pertaining to indirect effects. All parameter estimates are essential for accepting or rejecting the hypotheses posed for the serial mediation model proposed.

Firstly, with regards to obtained outcomes, direct effects will now be discussed (Table 1). In this sense, the coefficient produced was c₁₁ = 0.248. This indicates that a positive direct effect exists between social skills and learning competences. The standard error (SE) associated with this estimation was SE = 0.072, which helps to elucidate that there is a relatively low amount of variability or uncertainty associated with this estimation. The z-score of 3.435 was produced, indicating a statistically significant effect, which is confirmed by the statistically significant p-value associated with this outcome (p < 0.001). The confidence interval associated with this outcome defines a lower limit of 0.098 and an upper limit of 0.414. Given that this does not include the value of zero, this reinforces the conclusion that the effect is statistically significant and a positive relationship exists between social skills and learning competences. This finding permits the conclusion that social skills have a direct positive impact on learning competences, independent of the potential effects of other mediators, which will now be addressed.

Secondly, attention is turned to consider total effects (Table 1). The coefficient produced as an estimate of total effects will be denoted here as “d” in order to differentiate it from all other coefficients. Thus, the d-coefficient was d = 0.523. This indicates that social skills have a positive effect on learning competences. The SE, as a measure of the accuracy of this coefficient, was 0.082. Given that this value is also quite close to zero, it can be concluded that the coefficient is highly accurate. A z-value of z = 6.404 was produced, which was statistically significant to the level p < 0.001. The lower confidence interval was 0.346, whilst the upper limit was 0.705. As this clearly does not include the value of zero, it can be concluded that social skills have a significant positive effect on learning skills.

Comparing the outcomes described above with the aforementioned direct effect, it can be stated that the total effect (d = 0.523) is greater than the direct effect (c₁₁ = 0.248), which implies that significant indirect effects exist through one or more mediators, as will now be illustrated below. The difference between the total effect and the direct effect (0.523−0.248 = 0.275) represents the total indirect effect through the considered mediators.

Thirdly, parameter estimates pertaining to the direct effects are presented (Table 1) in the form of path coefficients (a₁₁, a₂₁, b₁₁, b₁₂ and c₁₁), bearing in mind that the first effect, corresponding to the c₁₁ coefficient (direct effect of predictor x: social skills → y: learning competences), has already been mentioned.

Fourthly and finally, the direct effect of emotional intelligence→learning competences is presented. The parameter estimate for this association was b₁₂₌ 0.40, which has an associated standard error of SE = 0.046. A z-score of z = 8.734 was produced, which was statistically significant at the level of p < 0.001. These two findings, together with the fact that the confidence interval was between 0.304 and 0.492 and did not comprise the value zero, indicate that the parameter estimate produced is statistically significant. In this sense, it can be concluded that emotional intelligence also has a significant positive effect on learning competences. This outcome suggests that higher levels of emotional intelligence are associated with higher levels of learning competence.

Fourthly, effects generated by the examined mediators, namely, academic motivation and emotional intelligence, will be discussed (Table 2).

The first indirect effect (ind₁) via academic motivation produced an a₁₁ x b₁₁ parameter estimate of 0.1342 with a bootSE of 0.0312. In this case, the 95% confidence interval ranged from 0.078 to 0.1974, which does not comprise zero. This indicates that there is a statistically significant mediation effect of academic motivation on the relationship between social skills and learning competences. The second indirect effect via emotional intelligence (ind₂) produced an a₂₁ x b₁₂ parameter estimate of 0.078 with a bootSE of 0.0312. The associated 95% confidence interval ranged between 0.0233 and 0.1653, which confirms the statistical significance (does not comprise zero) of the mediating effect of emotional intelligence.

The third indirect effect via the two examined mediators in combination, namely, via the combination of academic motivation and emotional intelligence (ind₃), produced an a₁₁ x e x b₁₂ parameter estimate of 0.0534 associated with a bootSE of 0.0138. The confidence interval (between 0.0284 and 0.0818) likewise does not comprise zero, which indicates that this effect can be deemed statistically significant.

These findings (Figure 3) suggest that both academic motivation and emotional intelligence are significant mediators of the relationship between social skills and learning competences. The sum of these indirect effects (ind₁ + ind₂ + ind₃) was 0.275 (0.134 + 0.0878 + 0.0534), which corroborates the difference between the total effect and direct effect described previously. This confirms that there is an important indirect effect in which these mediators play a meaningful role in the relationship between social skills and learning competences.

With regard to the social skills of education students, present findings reveal that H1 can be accepted, meaning that social skills have a positive direct effect on learning competences. This outcome supports that which was reported by Santos-Rego et al. (2021) in their study on competence in university students. This study explored the way in which relevant aspects of social skills, such as community interaction and teamwork, translated into better acquisition of learning competences.

In this sense, García-Toledano et al. (2023) examined the development of competences in the teaching-learning process undergone by higher education students. They concluded that the promotion of social skills, via support and teacher expectations, directly contributed to better development of learning competences. In addition, Virtanen and Tynjala (2022) highlight the importance of social skill development in the university context in terms of the acquisition of personal, learning and professional competences in order to upskill and train socially equipped professionals who are suitably prepared for the world.

In relation to H2, present findings support the idea that students with high levels of social skills tend to also have greater emotional intelligence. These findings are in accordance with those reported by Fukaya et al. (2024), whose research demonstrates that collaborative and constructive pedagogical practices promote social skill development in students, which, subsequently, increases their motivation. It also agrees with research conducted by Lee and Park (2024), which demonstrates that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are related to improved social skills in university students.

As proposed by H3, social skills in trainee teachers are positively related to emotional intelligence. This finding concurs with that reported by Llorent et al. (2020), whose study revealed that teachers with higher levels of social skills also tended to exhibit greater emotional intelligence.

Nonetheless, Rahman et al. (2024) concluded that social skills help to improve certain aspects of emotional intelligence. However, they do not guarantee a meaningful improvement in each and every dimension of emotional intelligence. Likewise, Mayer et al. (2004) revealed that although a correlation existed between social skills and emotional intelligence, this relationship was not sufficiently strong enough to support the conclusion that one automatically improves the other. In addition, Tynjala et al. (2016) concluded that, whilst social skills may improve certain aspects of emotional intelligence, this does not guarantee that all dimensions of emotional intelligence will improve.

According to the present findings, students' academic motivation positively impacts their learning competences. This confirms H4 and supports findings reported following research conducted by García-Toledano et al. (2023), who found motivated students tended to engage more actively in their own learning and more appropriately developed their competences. Another similar finding was reported by Virtanen and Tynjala (2022), who discovered that students who are more committed to their learning are more likely to develop appropriate learning competences.

In addition, Sánchez-Bolívar et al. (2024) revealed motivation to be a key predictor of academic performance and the acquisition of competences. Consequently, intrinsically motivated students were more committed to their learning and developed more solid academic and professional competences. This goes hand in hand with findings reported by Gregorio et al. (2023), who discovered that high motivation resulting from a positive learning climate contributed towards the development of different competences.

Similarly, H5 was supported given that emotional intelligence was found to have a positive effect on professional competences. This is in line with research conducted by Barrera-Gálvez et al. (2019), who found emotional intelligence to favour the achievement of a more rounded personality in students, turning them into more competent professionals, which may be grounded in them having a greater capacity to acquire better skills. Likewise, Pishghadam et al. (2022) concluded that the emotional intelligence of students may serve as a positive predictor of their academic performance.

In contrast, Bastian et al. (2005) found emotional intelligence to act as a predictor of lifelong competences, whilst also establishing that it may not be a reliable predictor of academic competences.

With regard to H6, present findings revealed that high levels of social skills together with high levels of emotional intelligence promote better development of learning competences. This outcome is in accordance with conclusions made by Collie et al. (2024) following their study on perceived competences, in which they established that social skills, such as tolerance capacity, contributed towards development of components of emotional intelligence, such as emotional regulation and emotional awareness. At the same time, this contributed towards student perceptions of security and support, which, in turn, led to them having greater competence.

In contrast, Bastian et al. (2005) argue that the rounded development of certain social skills, such as good communication skills and teamwork, together with high levels of emotional intelligence, may favour the capacity to perform duties that require interpersonal interaction but do not guarantee better academic performance or the development of specific technical skills.

This finding concurs with that reported by Tynjala et al. (2016), who found that social skills and emotional intelligence contributed towards skill development. That being said, this relationship is not always direct or guaranteed, given that it is influenced by other factors, such as technical knowledge and practical experience.

In relation to H7, better social skills together with higher levels of academic motivations were found to favour better development of learning competences. This hypothesis is supported by findings reported by Santos-Rego et al. (2021) in their research study on competence assessment in university students. This study concluded that social skill development, promoted through community interaction and teamwork, translated to greater intrinsic motivation due to the fact that learning was made more relevant and applicable for students. Through collaboration and effective communication, students become more motivated to see the impact of their work within the learning community. This synergy between social skills and academic motivation facilitates skill development. In this sense, present research demonstrates that students with these traits better develop the competences required for their academic and professional life.

With regards to H8, Gargallo-Lopez et al. (2020) propose an integrative theoretical model that reinforces the idea that social skills, academic motivation and emotional intelligence contribute towards the development of learning competences. In support of this, findings reported by Tusyanah et al. (2023) back up the notion that social skills and motivation are important for academic performance and soft skills, both of which are included within the concept of competence. Whilst emotional intelligence is not explicitly mentioned, social and teaching presence are both aspects that may entail components of emotional intelligence, such as empathy and emotional support. Additionally, Pegalajar-Palomino (2018) has demonstrated that cooperative learning, which, in itself, enhances social skills, motivation and emotional intelligence, significantly contributed towards the development of personal, systematic and instrumental competences.

Thus, it is essential to equip trainee teachers with strategies and tools that enable them to improve the social skills, academic motivation and emotional intelligence of their students. This will not only improve their students’ learning competence but also prepare them to be able to handle the complexities of working as teachers.

Next, a series of conclusions are proposed that are based on the extent of agreement between proposed hypotheses and obtained outcomes. In this regard, it is highlighted that all eight of the proposed hypotheses were confirmed by the data gathered in the present study. In this way, it can be stated that social skills have a significant positive effect on learning competence (H1), academic motivation (H2) and emotional intelligence (H3).

Further, academic motivation has a significant positive effect on learning competence (H4), in the same way that emotional intelligence also has a significant positive effect on learning competence (H5).

With regard to mediating effects, it serves to highlight that emotional intelligence emerges as a significant mediator of the relationship between social skills and learning competences. This enables confirmation of H6. In support of H7, academic motivation is also revealed as a significant mediator of the relationship between social skills and learning competence. Finally, this same relationship is mediated by the combination of both of these mediators, allowing for the acceptance of H8.

In conclusion, it can be stated that the findings of the present mediational analysis confirm that social skills have a significant positive impact on learning competence, both directly and via the mediators of academic motivation and emotional intelligence. This finding suggests that interventions targeting improvements in social skills in trainee teachers may serve to improve the ability of teachers to manage the dynamics and challenges present in their future working context.

This study presents several limitations that should be considered. Firstly, the sample was confined to a single university, which may introduce bias and limit the generalisability to a larger population. Secondly, the cross-sectional design of the study restricts our ability to establish causal relationships between the variables. Thirdly, the use of self-report questionnaires could lead to response biases; participants might respond in a manner they perceive as socially desirable, or differences in their capacity for self-reflection and self-evaluation could affect the accuracy of the data. Finally, there are potential additional variables not considered in this study that may influence the relationships between the studied variables.

The present study urges future research to conduct a more in-depth examination of the relationships between study variables by conducting longitudinal research that enables analysis of the way in which social skill development influences the development of learning competences. Further, it outlines the need to develop and conduct interventions with the aim of promoting the development of social skills, academic motivation and emotional intelligence with the purpose of improving learning competence in trainee teachers and, consequently, better equip them for their working future.

It is also necessary to examine the way in which social skills and competence in teachers may contribute towards the resilience and emotional well-being of their students, whilst, at the same time, it will be useful to assess the way in which self-regulation strategies could be integrated into teacher training in order to improve the effectiveness of classroom management.

This research was supported by the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities of the Spanish Government—University Teacher Training. FPU (No: FPU22/01938).