A New Generation of Educational Leaders: Are They Mind Full or Mindful?

Mainstream education overemphasizes objectivism creating a culture favoring competition over emotional well-being. A balanced dialogue valuing cognitive and emotional intellect may benefit educator mental health. Emotional well-being is gaining importance within educator preparation, supporting how cognitive traits are vital but not adequate for optimal professional success. For this reason, it is imperative that the whole realm of human learning be reinforced by elements of holistic education often neglected. The purpose of this article is to: (1) describe the historical context of institutions of higher education (IHEs) in the United States; (2) illustrate how the sociocultural context influences higher education culture; (3) explain human intelligence theory; (4) present the nature of contemplative practice (CP); and (5) provide practical implications for a contemplative leadership approach that may best serve new generations of educational leaders and their personal and professional development.

In Western education, the value of knowledge has been influenced by historic events and trends. Although no single event is responsible for the changing landscape of IHEs, the development and aftermath of the 1862 Morrill Land Grant Act greatly influenced the spirit of entrepreneurship and accountability in the United States (Nemec, 2006). Specifically, the land grants offered by Morrill’s legislation awarded funds for instruction in agriculture and technical education (Nemec, 2006). Thereafter, curriculum progressively extended beyond the liberal arts and proceeded to offer professional disciplines technical in nature.

By the 20th century, drastic curriculum and instructional changes took place in U.S. higher education. In the 1950s, the Vietnam War induced fear of nuclear warfare and, later that decade, Sputnik provoked anxiety related to the failures of public education, particularly in the areas of science and mathematics (Pinar, 2012). In the 1960s, Kleinman et al. (2011) reported how federal support for IHEs was bountiful and discussions around standardizing practices began to gain popularity. At this time, cognitive intellect grounded in the scientific method became an influential trend, affecting the focus of U.S. education, and eventually launching the standardization movement in schools (Goleman, 2006).

In the 1970s, IHEs began experiencing increasing financial pressure and initiated the promotion of businesslike strategies over collegial models of governance (Kleinman et al., 2011). The financial pressures promoted competition for external sources of funding in the 1980s (i.e., grants), and targeted areas of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. By the 1990s, boundaries between IHEs and industry were muddled. Mainstream discussions around scientific evidence and objectivism became the focal point, leaving the liberal arts behind. Objectivism represents a particular paradigm that suggests ideas are only perceived as valid if proven by observable outcomes (Palmer, 1983). With this lens in mind, knowledge can only be understood as true if successfully tested through modern science.

The epistemological trend of the 20th century influenced a more pragmatic and functional nature of higher education providing less emphasis, if not discouraging, personal development. As a result, this continues to cultivate a number of value paradoxes within U.S. education, such as worth versus achievement (Purpel, 1989). For instance, the hidden rules of the academy condition adult learners to compete with one another for grades, honors, and recognitions. Becoming achievement- focused, paradoxically, reverts adult learner consciousness to one of scarcity and competition, thereby promoting individuality. Individuality instigates competition where “the acquisition of materials, feeling good, and a sense of achievement become the common standards for individual pursuits,” instilling the notion that achievement becomes the prerequisite for worth and acceptance in Western culture (Purpel, 1989, p. 32). This form of cognitive dissonance calls into question the intrinsic nature of self-worth, suggesting it is extrinsic, testable, and therefore disputable. Such achievement-focused customs return awareness to one of contest and inadequacy resulting in an ideological struggle that contextualizes personal development and calls attention to its relevance in today’s society.

In Western rationality, the overemphasis on objective dogma may orient individuals to reason and presuppose the world in terms of binaries—right or wrong, success or failure, worthy or unworthy, et cetera (Ben-Shahar, 2009). For fear of being the latter (i.e., wrong, failure, unworthy), many become achievement-focused leaving no room for middle ground. As a result, current times have been referenced by many scholars as the culture of “never enough,” the “all-or-nothing” way of life, and society in pursuit of perfection (Ben-Shahar, 2009; Brown, 2010, 2015). These thought patterns have been recognized by cognitive behavioral theorists as cognitive distortions—inaccurate thoughts that convince individuals of a reality that simply is not true (Greenberger & Padesky, 1995). Such dichotomous thinking focuses only on extremes (e.g., all-or-nothing thinking) and may hinder the ability to perceive things neutrally.

Balanced thinking considers both negative and positive thoughts to assess information or broaden points of view. If thought patterns are imbalanced it may contribute to interpersonal and intrapersonal issues (Greenberger & Padesky, 1995). Duality promotes extreme dichotomies in the mind that may condition individuals to attach a moral evaluation to such mental states (Ben-Shahar, 2009). Attributing a moral assessment may silence and reject strong emotions such as, fear, shame, and anxiety. Yet, these emotions are neither good nor bad. Brown (2012) explains, “we dismiss vulnerability as weakness only when we realize that we have confused feeling with failing and emotions with liabilities” (p. 35). Consequently, passing moral judgment on thoughts and feelings may suppress strong emotions that impede on emotional well-being. Today, such a moral stance on emotions ultimately romanticizes the state of achievement and/or success as a series of uninterrupted positive emotions (Ben-Shahar, 2009) leading to an unprecedented growth of constant nervous tension in Western culture

Presently, statistics for those who struggle with mental health continue to increase on college campuses (Schmalz, 2017). For example, several higher education news articles reported on the struggles that adult learners face with anxiety and depression during their higher education experience. In 2015, the American College Health Association reported more than half of undergraduate students experienced “overwhelming anxiety” in the previous year, and 32% reported feeling so depressed “that it was difficult to function” (New, 2015). Moreover, findings from a study in nature biotechnology indicated that, of 2,279 graduate students (56% study humanities or social sciences), 39% of respondents scored in the moderate to severe depression range on clinically validated scales for anxiety and depression. These findings draw attention to the potential risk adult learners face with chronic stress and mental health issues (Flaherty, 2018). This cultural concern is one of meaning and is seen as moral and ethical, not technical in nature.

In the 21st century, IHEs in the United States have experienced an array of cultural, demographic, and institutional changes. It has been called a time of mental health crisis (Flaherty, 2018), resulting in a shift from an overemphasis on objectivism to a more expansive concept of knowledge—reinforcing the importance of social, emotional, and cultural knowledge to support human understanding (Palmer, 1983, 2009). To date, many scholars have interrogated Western culture in an effort to broaden discourse with the inclusion of a more diverse politics of knowing—placing value on the internal process and shared human experience (i.e., personal development) rather than external behavior (i.e., grades). Daniel Goleman (2006), among many other theorists, argue for a multidimensional concept of intelligence. A multifaceted notion of intellect, grounded in emotional intelligence (EQ) theory, may positively impact Western culture by helping future educational leaders develop mental resources and personalized strategies to cope with the demands of their personal and professional lives in an effort to calm anxieties, decrease stress, boost creativity, and enhance feelings of acceptance (Costa & Kallick, 2004; Liberman, 2017).

The concept of EQ dates back to Ancient Greek philosophy and modes of Socratic inquiry to explore topics concerning social causes, political issues, and self-awareness. Noddings (2012) writes, “Socrates insisted that self-knowledge is basic to all knowledge. It accompanies and informs our critical examination of the larger society” (p. 7). It is important to note that Socrates made a case for emotional competencies between 469-399 B.c., and it has been a constant point of public discourse since. What Socrates understood as self-awareness is now viewed as an aspect of EQ theory today (Goleman, 2006), urging the significance of its benefits for the human capacity. To date, a number of scholars have theorized human intellect to extend beyond a unitary capacity to include social, emotional, and cultural knowledge.

Many theorists argue against objective views of human intelligence considering them narrow and rigid. For instance, Howard Gardner’s (1983, 1993) multiple and personal intelligence theories are grounded in seven different ways of knowing, accounting for cultural influence, temporal differences, and changing contexts (as cited in Barrington, 2004). Moreover, Robert Sternberg’s (1985) triarchic human intelligence theory includes analytical aptitude thought to manage the ability to stabilize and focus the mind for increased creativity and problem-solving skills. Similarly, Peter Salovey and John Mayer’s (1990) understanding of EQ extends beyond memory to include the overall benefits of mental health. Lastly, Daniel Goleman (2006) defined EQ as having the capacity to be taught and learned. As a whole, these conceptual frameworks argue for emotional competencies and its potential benefit to personal and professional development as well as positive impact for an improved quality of life. Please see Table 1. 

EQ includes meta-abilities that determine how well individuals focus their attention to sought-after goals. Skeptics have called out the many conflicting notions of EQ, noting that, given its multifaceted nature, it cannot be rationalized as a valid concept (Waterhouse, 2006). Alternatively, Cherniss et al. (2006) reminds critics that there was no universal agreement on the meaning of other constructs, such as IQ. For that reason, expecting unanimous consensus for EQ is holding it to a different standard. Although researchers in the field have challenged these flaws with supporting evidence for the contrary belief, such gaps may carry over to the theoretical foundation related to CP.

This section articulates the potential need for emotional competencies in IHEs through the use of CP. The relevant literature related to EQ provides a theoretical viewpoint that frames the construct of CP for a thorough understanding of the concept. CP and its potential benefits may best serve new generations of educational leaders by cultivating inner harmony, managing internal states, and adapting to ever-changing professional contexts among other advantages. Specifically, the following areas are covered: (1) historical context of CP, (2) working definition of CP, and (3) neuroscience of CP.

The concept of CP emerges from earlier ideologies. Rendón (2009) describes an array of historical belief systems that include elements of CP: (1) Christian practices in the discernment of spirits, (2) Buddhist exercises in meditation, (3) Jewish Kabbalah strategies for deep pondering, (4) Hindu activities of yoga, and (5) Plato’s concept of radical questioning. The foundation of CP derives from historical spiritual and philosophical ideologies (Barbezat & Bush, 2014). Yet, it is important to note that no spiritual or philosophical foundation is required to engage in CP. When CP is understood as a stand-alone construct it serves a more diverse demographic, allowing for broader meaning-making abilities in the spirit of discovery (Congleton et al., 2017).

The key principles that makeup CP are formulations that cut across many ideologies that inherently reflect morality— “a term that focuses on principles, rules, and ideas that are related to human relationships [as well as] how we deal with each other and with the world” (Purpel, 1989, p. 66). With that context in mind, CP may be used to identify mental processes and behaviors involving any level of reflection, learning-strategy selection, and intentionality that may result in an improved lifestyle. For purposes of this article, CP is encouraged as a form of secular and mental training.

To date, universal consensus on the definition of CP is lacking (Krikorian & Busse, 2019). However, Barbezat and Bush (2014) offer five elements to support a working definition of CP: (1) EQ, (2) reflection, (3) listening competency, (4) mindfulness, and (5) compassion/self-compassion. As a result, three out of the five components were used to inform the working definition of the term. CP is operationalized using the following factors: (a) mindfulness, (b) listening competency, and (c) compassion/self-compassion. Krikorian and Busse (2019) reasoned EQ as the theoretical framework that contextualize CP and determined reflection as an interrelated concept with the remaining elements.

Neuroscientific research has noted an association between mental states and certain areas within the brain. In recent research, a team of scientists conducted a meta-analysis for over 20 studies resulting in the identification of at least eight different regions of the brain affected by elements of CP (as cited by Congleton et al., 2017). Given these findings, the human brain has been linked with the limbic system, amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex, and neocortex. Particularly, the limbic system is associated with the hippocampus which is surrounded with “receptors for the stress hormone cortisol and may be negatively impacted by chronic stress” (Congleton et al., 2017, p. 31). Plus, the amygdala aids in a precautionary assessment known as the fight-or-flight response that may strengthen the ability to bounce back from adversity (Goleman, 2006). Also, the anterior cingulate cortex is associated with self-regulation to support decision making in a fast-paced environment (Congleton et al., 2017). Lastly, the neocortex facilitates attention, thought, perception, and memory to aid in learning and retention strategies (Goleman, 2006). The field of cognitive psychology uses the term working memory to define the focus of attention with the capacity to hold information necessary to complete a task or problem at hand (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). Cognitive theorists suggest that strong emotions (e.g., anger, fear, or stress) may inhibit the ability to maintain working memory (Goleman, 2006). Therefore, decreasing the likelihood of such emotions may enhance cognitive function performance and decrease professional burnout.

Research related to the working definition may provide a baseline for where inquiry and practice related to CP should begin. Areas of CP may inform professional development programs to enhance affective states and helping skills in fields of educator preparation to better equip educational leaders to enter the complex and real life of schools. When emotions and rationality complement one another, the human mind has the ability for: (1) information processing (i.e., listening competency), (2) impulse control (i.e., mindfulness), and (3) empathy (i.e., compassion/self-compassion), among other characteristics.

Mindfulness is conceptualized as both a process (i.e., practice) and an outcome (i.e., state of awareness; Barbezat & Bush, 2014). The process can be practiced by focusing attention on the task at hand leading to the aspired outcome, a state of nonjudgmental awareness of the present moment (Congleton et al., 2017). Tolle (2004) explains how mindfulness reframes cognitive thought patterns by learning to disregard past worries, avoid future anxieties, and live in the present moment. However, using mindfulness as a tool for purposes of accomplishment perpetuates an achievement-focused mindset (Liberman, 2017). The attention strategies should not be used with the goal of increasing productivity. Findings from Miller and Nozawa (2012) as well as Beer (2010) demonstrate how a mindfulness training program evidenced an increase in positive emotions. Miller and Nozawa (2012) conducted a qualitative study investigating mediation practices for more than 1,200 students. Students practiced approximately 30 minutes of daily meditation and journaled about their meditative experiences. The researchers collected the journal entries and found an overall increase in: (1) acceptance, (2) heightened energy, and (3) sense of calmness. Similarly, Beer (2010) conducted a case study at a private liberal arts institution where elements of mindfulness were integrated with administrators in leadership positions. The researcher engaged participants in self-reflective activities (e.g., meditation, journaling, writing poetry) and conducted interviews for data collection. Beer pointed to findings showing that participants experienced an increase in job satisfaction and feelings of well-being. Overall, mindfulness practices may assist future leaders in altering mental states to think more clearly and reduce stress (Brendel, 2017).

There is a common misconception about the art of listening which is thought to include periodic hemming and hawing prior to the occasional paraphrasing. However, practitioners in the field have further defined the term to include: (1) listening without bias, (2) establishing an ethic of care, (3) listening for feelings, (4) asking questions for clarity purposes, and (5) avoiding personalization (Brady, 2009). Additionally, practicing listening as a means to an end may be perceived by others as inauthentic or as having a hidden agenda. On that basis, listening should be done in pursuit of meaning making where diverse perspectives may help inform decision making within a professional context. Findings from Sable (2014) as well as Zenger and Folkman (2017) evidence support for a more interactive approach to listening.

Sable (2014) conducted a research study that investigated reflective dispositions for critical thinking. During an 11-week undergraduate course training was conducted on listening, reflecting back, reflective inquiry, and dialogue. The quantitative results showed statistically significant gains in the average number of indicators for critical thinking disposition. These results supported that listening skills had a positive influence on reflective disposition for critical thinking. Moreover, Zenger and Folkman (2017) collected and analyzed data from 3,492 participants involved in a management professional development program through 360-degree assessments. The top 5% of effective listeners exhibited the following behaviors: (1) prompted occasional question posing to promote discovery and/or insight, (2) created a safe environment where differences and concerns could be discussed openly, (3) offered suggestions and/or feedback in light of a different perspective, (4) challenged the listener in a productive manner to be helpful in place of competitive. Emerging results from the study support a more interactive approach to listening, differing from the common misperception of silent listening. Generally, the art of listening may promote a more collaborative approach in the workplace and lead toward greater understanding of human dynamics. Thus, initiating more positive interactions with colleagues may lead to trust, loyalty, and creativity (Seppala, 2017).

Compassion encompasses both an ethic of care for the self, and the other. Barbezat and Bush (2014) define compassion as a state of awareness focused on the suffering of others coupled with the desire to see them relieved of that pain. Similarly, Neff (2003) explains self-compassion as an awareness of one’s pain, kindness toward oneself, and acceptance of failure as part of humanity. Compassion and self-compassion have the power to influence moral judgments, responses to others, and acceptance. Still, too much empathetic concern may be problematic and lead to feelings of exhaustion, lapse in ethical judgment, and limit cognitive resources (Waytz, 2017). For example, researchers surveyed 844 employees from diverse backgrounds to investigate the negotiation of compassionate behavior in the professional and personal worlds. Participant findings confirmed that those who devoted more empathetic concern at work felt less connected to their families, emotionally depleted, and heightened exhaustion from career-related pressures (Waytz, 2017). On the other hand, findings from Kemeny et al. (2012) confirmed how the promotion of compassion reduces the rehearsal of negative emotions. The researchers collected data from 82 school teachers who experienced an 8-week training that included elements of empathy. Several self-report measures were completed before and after the end of the training program. The Kemeny et al. findings showed that the intervention group reported decreases in depression, anxiety, and self-judgment from pretest to posttest during the program compared with those in the control group. By and large, self-compassion and compassion may assist future educational leaders in coping with strong emotions and avoiding professional burnout (Goleman, 2017; McKee, 2017).

Educator preparation programs help train teachers, education leaders, education specialists, counselors, et cetera, all of whom have the ability to assume responsibility for finding potential in people and processes (Brown, 2010). That said, an educational leader is one who accepts this responsibility despite positionality and organizational structure. Those willing to accept this important responsibility may consider contemplative leadership as

Contemplative leadership accepts the gray areas of life as opportunities to learn, grow, and work toward greater resolve with others. Such an approach to leadership moves beyond a dichotomous way of thinking and embraces the complexities of the world in place of attempting to control for it.

The literature base is beginning to document how CP may enhance professional development by embracing emotions more fully. The implementation of CP may support educational leaders by limiting professional burnout and positively influencing executive function performance (Barbezat & Bush, 2014; Helber et al., 2012). Such professional development strategies for a more contemplative approach to leadership may include, but are not limited to, the following:

Meditative practices may help to manage strong emotions to enhance meta-cognitive thinking. Zajonc (2009) offers a meditative guide by first asking that a preferred passage, phrase, or quote from texts or creative works be selected (e.g., there is no fear in love). Then Zajonc instructs individuals to start by sounding out the sentence without analyzing its meaning. At this point, the focus should be placed on the feelings the sentence evokes rather than deconstructing it for understanding. Thereafter, singularly give attention to each word and prompt reflection with related questions. Do you find fear in yourself? What situations are you fearful of? Can you trace back the event that spurred about this fear? In time, other passages can be gradually added or images may enhance the power of the words (Zajonc, 2009). Educational leaders may increase self-awareness to manage personal feelings in challenging situations.

Ruminating over thoughts and emotions may lead to unintentional magnification, where exaggerations may be made when it comes to things that are important. Providing a safe space to channel feelings (e.g., journaling) may help prevent magnification (Ben-Shahar, 2009). What’s more, professional journal writing also offers an opportunity to reflect on philosophical questions such as, How do you define well-being? With this insight, educational leaders may strengthen professional identity and articulate healthy boundaries to support personal and professional goals (Barbezat & Bush, 2014).

Greater self-awareness may lead to a stronger understanding of personal values. Values help set parameters for the personal and professional decisions made in everyday life. Miller et al. (2011) recommends a personal values card sort to help clarify top values that may inform responses to others and approaches to challenges. This particular activity suggests a number of personal values and guides the participant in a sorting exercise to identify a minimum of three personal values reflective of the individual. Educational leaders may use top values as a means to find purpose and fulfillment in their professional lives.

Physiologically the human body releases the most stress hormones in the brain upon waking. For this reason, Hougaard and Carter (2018) recommend staying away from email upon waking. The researchers explain how low-priority emails have a way of helping individuals feel productive. The quick acts of accomplishment release pleasurable hormones that may draw individuals to email more and leave them distracted. Instead, Hougaard and Carter suggest practicing deep breathing exercises in bed after waking up. Upon waking, refrain from reviewing email or thinking about work, simply practice breathing for a few minutes prior to starting the day. Educational leaders may begin the day with little to no outside distractions prompted by low-priority email exposure that may sharpen and focus attention to the present moment for high-priority tasks.

Helping skills performance may be influenced through interactive small-group work. For example, individuals may take turns practicing listening skills grounded in the humanistic strategies constructed by Carl Roger’s person-centered core conditions and receive real-time feedback from their peers (Rogers, 1961). The same exercise may also be conducted virtually through the use of video recordings. An individual may record a listening exercise at home or work and upload the taping to an online platform where peers view the video and provide constructive feedback. The workshop may aid future educational leaders in understanding nonverbal and unintentional behaviors to enhance their listening competency.

Understanding how feedback may trigger emotions is essential to becoming a better receiver. Heen and Stone (2017) offer six ways to learn how to receive feedback more effectively: (1) reflect on personal tendencies, (2) separate the person from the comment(s), (3) see it as a form of coaching in place of criticism, (4) understand the feedback before deciding to take the advice or not, (5) ask trusted colleagues if they observe behavior they perceive as inhibiting professional growth, and (6) continue to test the feedback and tweak it based on new recommendations or developments. Educational leaders open to feedback may continue to learn and grow in their professional and personal lives for optimal success.

Knowing when to give feedback may positively impact delivery and interactions with colleagues. Brown (2015) provides a feedback checklist to help gauge where individuals are in the process of offering productive feedback:

Educational leaders may establish more trusting and open relationships with others when feedback is offered constructively and with an ethic of care.

Group dialogue and debate may help further participant’s understanding of the topic at hand. In addition, such collaborative dialogue may also sharpen reason and logic skills. For instance, divide the group in two or assign partners to argue an issue or topic. To start the activity, allot teams or individuals time to reflect and organize their thoughts. Then, ask them to share their point by expressing reasoning to discount the opposing viewpoint (Barbezat & Bush, 2014). Educational leaders open to opposite viewpoints may promote more collaborative approaches for greater resolve.

Appropriate internal and external recovery times are needed to promote resilience and emotional agility. Blankson (as cited by Achor & Gielan, 2017) suggests downloading the Offtime or Unplugged phone applications to create technology free spaces that may help limit overworking. Such phone applications have the ability to schedule automatic airplane mode periods to minimize distractions during personal time. Educational leaders may benefit from protecting rest-periods, allowing for reenergization to avoid professional burnout.

Positive affirmations while walking may cultivate unconditional acceptance. Barbezat and Bush (2014) suggests taking a break during a difficult work encounter or peak stressful hours in the workplace to walk outside or around the facilities. In the process of walking, recite a meditation, “may all beings be well,” and “may all beings be happy” (p. 163). In addition, Thich Nhat Hanh (as cited by Barbezat & Bush, 2014) shares a similar mantra for consideration while walking with words: “(1) I have arrived, (2) I am home, (3) I am here, and (4) In the now” (p. 163). Educational leaders may benefit from meditation, inviting a sense of calmness to arise during difficult or stressful moments to avoid overidentification with thought and emotion.

Expressing gratitude has the potential to raise levels of emotional well-being. Practices may include thank you notes as part of interacting with others, public acknowledgments for team contributions, and the right kind of touch—high fives, fist bumps, and pats on the back (Keltner, 2017). Seligman (as cited by Ben-Shahar, 2009) also introduces the concept of a gratitude visit. This activity requires writing a letter to someone expressing your appreciation for a specific experience or event. Once the letter is complete, deliver the letter in person and read it out loud. Educational leaders may benefit from practices of gratitude, allowing for a present moment focus to reframe thoughts derived from past experiences or future imaginations.

Compassion may offer a new way of perceiving a painful or challenging event. Zajonc (2009) prompts individuals to think of a hurtful time and allow all the associated feelings to arise. As individuals recall this event, they may also consider the context, dynamics, and history behind the individuals and/or organizations involved in the drama. Refrain from psychoanalyzing or intellectualizing the experience and begin to entertain the idea of compassionate understanding where “a beginning [can be] made by not giving ourselves over to our emotions, but pausing to set aside egotism, seek higher ground, [and] discover the Martin Luther King in ourselves” (Zajonc, 2009, p. 29). Educational leaders may benefit from compassion practice, allowing for nonjudg- mental attention to context.

It is time to call into question Western values in hopes of promoting moral goals toward human understanding (Purpel, 1989). Today, there is a great need to balance the overemphasis on objective dogma, individuality, and achievement with multifaceted ways of knowing, community, and the preservation of innate self-worth. Since strong emotions (i.e., stress) are a particular outlook on events, future educational leaders have the potential to change them through behavior over time (Beard, 2017; Ben-Shahar, 2009). When emotions and rationality balance one another, the human mind has the ability for emotional agility and content expertise, supporting future generations of educational leaders in the pursuit of transformative change. To date, contemplative models in higher education are scarce and need to be constructed further. CP and its potential benefits merit investigation in an effort to address such gaps in the literature. Additional research is recommended to support CP for future benefit to practice to help disrupt implicit messages of Western culture such as, achievement equates to worthiness. In closing, CP aims to reinforce the notion that the simple act of being is worthy in itself (Brown, 2010).