The role of technology in developing resilient supply chains: a systematic literature review during the COVID-19 pandemic and the disruptions of economic sanctions

Digitalisation of supply chains (SCs) (Flechsig et al., 2022) gained considerable attention from global leaders to large organisations during the COVID-19 pandemic (Knight et al., 2022; Zahoor et al., 2022). The trade restrictions (Matthews et al., 2022) to protect against virus spread and the conflict between Russia and Ukraine led to a shortage of key commodities (Curran et al., 2021) and SC disruption (Pereira et al., 2022), raising the need for resilient commercial and humanitarian SCs (Birkel et al., 2023; Thompson and Anderson, 2021). The use of technology played a major role in protecting the spread of the virus and sharing COVID-19 information.

Technology offers the opportunity to bring a new shift (Srai and Lorentz, 2019; Van Hoek, 2021) in the SCs, replacing the current physical logistics and SC system with a new and/or hybrid system, to develop resilience in the SCs. The use of industry 4.0 technologies (I4.0T) has shown promising results in SC performances (Balakrishnan and Usha, 2021; Dongfang et al., 2022; Eslami et al., 2024). Most of the existing literature on the related COVID-19 pandemic focuses either on the impact of the pandemic on SCs (Ardolino et al., 2022; Min, 2023; Patrucco and Kähkönen, 2021) or the digitalisation of SC processes (Vaidya et al., 2018). However, the specific role of technology in building resilient supply chains (RSCs) (Piyathanavong et al., 2024) and mitigating disruptive scenarios remains controversial and uncertain. This controversy and uncertainty are regrettable given the importance of the issue, which has both practical and theoretical implications. It is assumed that minimising SC disruptions (Ivanov and Dolgui, 2021) benefits economic, environmental and social values. Disruptions are inherent features of SC systems due to their complexity, interconnectedness and vulnerability to external factors such as geopolitical sanctions, pandemics and disasters. Technology is seen as a promising means to mitigate those challenges during disruption. For instance, the introduction of digital coins using blockchain technology (BCT) (Choi et al., 2022) to overcome currency freezing during sanction, and the design of personal protective equipment for medical tools using additive manufacturing.

I4.0T play a key role in enhancing the efficiency and resilience of commercial and humanitarian SCs, but their implementation is not without challenges. The limitations can challenge the value of technology in addressing SC disruptions. These drawbacks pose critical challenges when designing and implementing technology-driven solutions. One of the primary limitations in implementing advanced technology is its high investment cost, particularly in the humanitarian SC. The cost of technologies such as blockchain, drones or automated SC systems is difficult, especially for developing economies (Gunasekaran et al., 2024). Integrating technologies is also a critical challenge as it involves diverse systems across the SC. This problem is severe particularly in humanitarian logistics as many stakeholders from non-governmental organizations, government and private stakeholders and donors are involved which may be difficult due to lack of standardisation and interoperability. Such a lack of integration among systems of different stakeholders can result in delays and inefficiencies, especially during emergencies when time-sensitive responses are critical (Gorkhali, 2022).

The application of technologies relies on the availability of accurate and reliable data. However, data availability and reliability are often major issues in disaster-stricken regions, which can lead to poor decision-making and erode the effectiveness of technology (Liu et al., 2022a, 2022b). The growing reliance on technology for managing humanitarian SCs introduces emerging vulnerabilities related to cybersecurity risks, such as data breaches, hacking or cyberattacks, which can severely disrupt humanitarian operations and delay aid delivery (Kalla et al., 2020). Skill gaps and human resources also constrain the use of technology in managing SC disruptions. These constraints can hamper the use and implementation of technologies in humanitarian SC, particularly in crises where human resource capacities are already stretched thin (Murtaza et al., 2004; Wankhede and Vinodh, 2023).

Moreover, technology use and implementation of humanitarian SCs, such as autonomous systems: drones or robots, raise ethical concerns regarding the safety of vulnerable populations and the potential for technology to escalate inequalities. The displacement of the human workforce by technologies can have social implications, particularly in high joblessness countries (Wang et al., 2021a). Furthermore, overreliance on technology can result in a situation where human intuition, experience and flexibility are underestimated. This feature has a strong effect particularly in the humanitarian SC as it requires adapting to rapidly changing circumstances (Chen et al., 2019). In addition, the issue of scaling up is a challenge in implementing technology in SCs advanced technologies can work well on a small scale but face difficulties when implemented in large-scale humanitarian SCs with complex emergencies (Kovács and Spens, 2011).

This paper, therefore, fills this gap in the literature and addresses the controversy and uncertainty by focusing on four primary objectives.

Firstly, the paper intends to highlight the need for RSC systems. The current SC systems were unable to show robustness against SC disruptions. Longer lead times, greater demand variability and higher risks of SC disruptions are observed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic (Fisher Ke et al., 2022; Patrucco and Kähkönen, 2021). The disruptions of SCs (Bals et al., 2019; Glas et al., 2021) due to business and transport route restrictions resulted in rerouting, supply uncertainty (Moretto and Caniato, 2021), noticeable inflation records (deLisle, 2022; Steffen and Patt, 2022), financial (Yousaf et al., 2022) and transport (Chowdhury et al., 2021) disruptions, excessive logistics costs and missed delivery deadlines (Estrada and Koutronas, 2022) making the current SC system incompetent. Therefore, this study aims to demonstrate the gap between the current SC system and how technology can capacitate the SCM to become resilient to poor circumstances. Secondly, it attempts to demonstrate the importance of a paradigm shift. The paradigm shift could involve replacing the current SC systems with new technological features or hybridised systems to make the SC system more resilient. Thirdly, the paper strives to capitalise on the role of technology in mitigating disruptive scenarios such as COVID-19. Rapid technological development affects the current SC systems by providing a tool to respond to any challenges and competitions. This study identifies five major areas of SC characteristics that are important to overcome disruptions. The final purpose of this study is to investigate promising technologies and technological features that are important in building RSC systems by gaining deep and comprehensive insights into previous research on the role of all technologies in the SC. At the same time, some technical challenges have been identified that require improvement for the proper implementation of technologies, such as privacy and security requirements (Kalla et al., 2020), unreliable outcomes (Tiwari et al., 2024), poor integration capability to the existing devices, scalability, ineffective technology utilisation (Liu et al., 2022a; Rajaguru and Matanda, 2019) and human–machine reconciliation (Choi et al., 2022). However, the effectiveness of technology in shifting the SC paradigms depends on the level of implementation, technical development and the dominance of a particular technology in offering the necessary technological features for most sectors.

From a practical standpoint, this work demonstrates the role of technology in enhancing supply chain resilience (SCR) during and beyond disruptions, as well as the need for a paradigm shift. We encourage organisations to adopt technologies that enhance their SCs, thus improving their ability to resist shocks and adapt to unforeseen events. In this regard, this study seeks to answer the following research question:

From a theoretical perspective, this work updates SC technological feature requirements to address current and future challenges and anticipate disruptive technological breakthroughs that could alter SC paradigms by using trendy features to overcome events or shocks. Hence, this work attempts to answer the following question:

Thus, the paper reviews the role of technology in reducing disruptions and developing RSCs for commercial and humanitarian, focusing on current trends and future technological requirements. We have contributed to research by analysing and reporting on how technology can develop SCR. Our framework shows the industry’s experience and potential during COVID-19. This paper is structured into seven sections:

Section 1 provides an overview of the research and defines the aim and objectives of the present study; Section 2 provides an overview of SCR; Section 3 provides the research approach followed in conducting the study; Section 4 presents the main findings and analysis; Section 5 presents research needs and discussion; Section 6 presents the implications of the study; and finally Section 7 presents the conclusion of the study.

The global pandemic (Chowdhury et al., 2021; Das et al., 2022b) and the war between Russia and Ukraine exposed the SC integration vulnerabilities (Acevedo and Lorca-Susino, 2021; Adekoya et al., 2022; deLisle, 2022; Estrada and Koutronas, 2022) and put SCR into question (Curran et al., 2021). Individuals, organisations, companies and countries have been impacted by these disruptions. In this kind of scenario, the role of technology becomes very important in reducing supply shortages such as oil (Adekoya et al., 2022) and raw materials and maintaining transportation prices as low as possible by creating and forecasting necessary SC characteristics, responsibilities and duties, thereby strengthening the crisis management system.

The role of technology is considered essential in creating RSCs, both for commercial and humanitarian SCs. Firms’ ability to exploit and explore new ideas helps them overcome disruptions and build SCR using I4.0T (Charles Arthur et al., 2022). The study by Chowdhury et al. (2021), on the role of technology in the implementation of resilient strategies, summed up the strategies for minimising the impacts of COVID-19, recovering from the current pandemic and preparing for future pandemics, as three main disruptions of SCR:

1. preparedness;

2. response; and

3. recovery.

Previous studies on the role of technology in implementing resilience strategies suggested only low-tech solutions to the problem, such as health-care SCs, the use of additive manufacturing (AM), mobile service operations, drones and artificial intelligence (AI). However, technologies are available to build RSC with a combination of other resilient attributes or strategies (Magableh, 2021). I4.0T such as blockchain, robotics, Internet of Things (IoT), AI, big data analytics (BDA) and cloud computing (CC) are rarely studied for their role in managing disruption and ensuring resilience (Chowdhury et al., 2021). Most literature (Kumar et al., 2022; Roma and Adriana, 2021) associates the use of AM technology only with specific applications, such as medical and personal protection equipment (PPE). However, this literature revealed the role of AM technology in various roles, particularly during disruption periods, such as remanufacturing and diminishing waste resources by employing just-in-time production. The manufacturing of PPE and health-care equipment for hospitals was achieved through collaborative platforms, with printers and volunteers assisting. However, discovering and classifying proven designs was challenging, as most designs were published online without official testing or certification. The pandemic and geopolitical crises have exposed the vulnerability in the health-care sector underscoring the necessity of developing robust and RSCs that can withstand future challenges. Digital technology (DT) showed its capabilities in improving health-care SCR during disruption periods. The integration of DT significantly changed the health-care sector, enhancing visibility, transparency and stakeholder collaboration (Chen et al., 2019; Tiwari et al., 2024). The implementation of DT for tracking and tracing important medical supplies, such as PPEs, medicines and vaccines, attracted the interest of global health organisations. However, we acknowledge some technical challenges that require improvement for the proper implementation of technologies. The unreliable outcome of BDA and AI tools is due to a lack of end-to-end visibility in the SC, an overwhelming amount of data that can lead to poor decision-making (Tiwari et al., 2024), poor integration capability to the existing devices and inequality in access to technology that leads to a digital divide and SC integration challenges.

Naz et al. (2022) proposed that future technology adoption could reduce the social, economic and environmental impacts of SCs and/or transportation and logistics. The technological progress could also help develop a framework for supplier selection and RSC network design. While designing resilient and robust SCs, it is mandatory to consider technology that overcomes future risks, such as SC network disruptions (Das et al., 2022a; Van Der Vegt et al., 2015), cybersecurity and theft behaviours. Four fundamental design principles were proposed for digitising purchasing and SC management, interconnection, information transparency (Van Hoek, 2020), decentralised decisions and technical assistance (Srai and Lorentz, 2019). The upcoming technology is expected to improve organisational competencies such as openness to a new solution and process optimisation (Bals et al., 2019). Digital twin, data-driven SC risk analytics systems, can aid decision-making in historical analysis, predictive optimisation, simulation of alternative designs, real-time recovery control and learning and disruption pattern recognition, providing a basis for managing disruption risks in SC (Ivanov and Dolgui, 2021).

A significant number of studies demonstrate the potential of DTs to shift the paradigm of the SC system (Srai and Lorentz, 2019). This study highlights how current technology shifts future SC activities by using the relationships between technological progress and SC development. Digitalisation significantly influenced the development of crisis protocols during the COVID-19 pandemic, primarily due to the need for physical distancing measures (Durugbo et al., 2022). All technologies, strategies, techniques and approaches enable firms to close the gap, which helps to develop an RSC system (Magableh, 2021). As firms increase their global footprint and the number of global partners, the demand for DT adoption increases (Matthews et al., 2022). Based on the current industrial experience, compatible, reconfigurable, interconnected and collaborative (Küffner et al., 2022), responsive (Frederico et al., 2023) and consistent technological features are among the upcoming requirements of technological characteristics that lead to an RSC to respond to future crises. It is highlighted that large and complex data processing and transactions, cybersecurity, hybridised systems and improved integration between blockchain, AI, IoT and data analytics features are prioritised by most sectors to meet their objectives and respond to future challenges. The use of technology in SCs is crucial for fostering trust among stakeholders (Haddud et al., 2017). However, ineffective technology utilisation can lead to miscommunication, data inaccuracies and a lack of transparency, causing misunderstandings, conflicts and disruptions (Liu et al., 2022a; Rajaguru and Matanda, 2019). A computer security update in July 2024 disrupted the aviation industry and other businesses. Airlines like Delta, American and United issued ground stops and manually checked in passengers. Such disruptions in the SC highlight the importance of ensuring the safe and effective utilisation of technologies. Establishing clear protocols and ensuring data integrity is essential for mitigating risks associated with technological failures (Abou Kamar et al., 2023).

I5.0 technology, which favours human–machine (Choi et al., 2022) and SC stakeholder collaboration, is expected to contribute to developing RSCs and network connectivity. IoT, BCT and digital twins have the potential to provide connectivity between SCs, which helps to develop RSCs. The presence of smart materials in I5.0 technologies plays a major role in performing multiple functionalities and capabilities in a chaotic environment such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Jefroy et al., 2022). In their work, Choi et al. (2022) highlighted the potential pitfalls of human–machine reconciliation for achieving coexistence between machines and humans in the context of sustainable social welfare. However, users should make better decisions about the role of technology. Humans create technology to perform particular objectives; however, one can use it for unethical activities. Therefore, the potential of those technologies lies not in the technologies themselves, but in how they are leveraged.

This review adopted an established five-step (Figure 1) process for conducting a systematic literature review (SLR). Denyer and Tranfield (2009) suggest an SLR to pass through research question development, literature selection, article evaluation systems to include or exclude, data analysis and synthesis and reporting findings.

An initial extensive explanatory literature review in the area of SC and technology during the COVID-19 pandemic and the ongoing Russia–Ukraine war (Ardolino et al., 2022; Pörtner et al., 2022), led to the development of RQ1 and RQ2 to systematically review the literature.

This literature review aims to develop a comprehensive understanding of a research problem by minimising bias using four search criteria:

1. timeframe;

2. database;

3. journal selection; and

4. keywords.

The first known COVID-19 outbreak was reported in December 2019 (Cordeiro et al., 2022). However, without developing the capability to adapt and customise the pandemic consequences, the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, which started in February 2022, led to unprecedented economic and social sanctions against Russia (Nguyen and Do, 2021; Tosun and Eshraghi, 2022), as well as the SC crisis. For this reason, articles published between January 2020 and September 2022 were explored and considered.

To identify scholarly and peer-reviewed journal articles related to SCM and technological progress Scopus, Taylor & Francis, Wiley, Springer, Emerald and IEEE databases were explored.

To ensure the standard of our systematic review, we strictly considered peer-reviewed journals in line with our research questions.

To find the relevant articles, we used preliminary surveys and iteration methods on internet databases to select 19 keywords from the technologies and SCR-related literature. Literature searching is performed using the following key terms “supply chain” AND “disruption” OR “COVID-19 pandemic” OR “Russia-Ukraine war” AND “technology” OR “industry 4.0” OR “digitalisation” OR “artificial intelligence” OR “blockchain” OR “additive manufacturing” OR “big data analytics” OR “cloud computing” OR “internet of people” OR “internet of things” OR “augmented reality” OR “automation” OR “robotics” AND “resilience” OR “supply chain resilience” on titles based on Boolean logic. In total, 2,219 English-language articles were found using the more specific search criteria. The domain of journal articles was considered within the scope of procurement, logistics, operations, SC management, purchasing, transport, manufacturing, industrial marketing, information systems, business, production economics, technology and integrated SC.

The screening and shortlisting mechanism was reading the title of the articles based on current technologies and future forecast contributions (Rad et al., 2022; Vaidya et al., 2018). Following the scope of this review, publication coverage related to the title and after finding no or very few keywords in the article using a manual search, 2,045 journal articles were dropped. After reviewing the abstract of 174 articles, 115 articles are excluded from further investigations, due to a lack of detailed information about technological contribution during the pandemic. The remaining 59 articles were considered for further reading and a total of 40 articles were used for this SLR.

To ensure the validity of the work and avoid the rejection of a good sample, manual keyword searching was performed on each excluded article.

The sample articles were synthesised and analysed to gain new insights and knowledge. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) inductive theme research analysis methodologies were applied to analyse and summarise the key role of technologies. Technology’s contribution to SCs during the COVID-19 pandemic and Russian economic sanctions was classified, organised and systematised to examine the literature’s contribution (Table 2).

After reading Table 2 and re-reading the literature to become acquainted with the main concepts, iterations such as collecting similar technological roles and technologies together to develop initial codes were performed. It is then organised and systematised to generate themes. This includes defining codes and analysing the themes. The relationships between the data items and codes, as well as those between the themes and data sets, were examined. From the data extraction, the final themes were defined, named, arranged and reported. The following major technological roles (themes) are formulated from Table 2: information gathering, analysis and sharing; visibility and transparency; collaboration and integration; automation and efficiency; and analytical and innovative capability. Finally, the analysis of these data was used to reveal or frame the current role of technology and upcoming SC requirements.

Our study highlights the potential of technology in enhancing SCR during disruptions, but also highlights a gap between technological advancements and performance, emphasising resistance and recovery in humanitarian SCs. We have contributed to the research community by identifying, analysing, synthesising, interpreting and reporting the fragmented literature on the role of different technologies in developing SCR. We have developed, a comprehensive framework (subsection 4.3) that reveals the industry’s experience and the potential of technology during the COVID-19 disruption.

Table 1 presents academic journal guide rankings and paper numbers for 2022 journals retrieved from the Scimago Journal and Country Rank databases. The International Journal of Production Research, Operation Management Research and the International Journal of Operations and Production Management have the highest technological contribution coverage.

Technology is crucial in logistics and SC management during disruptions like geopolitical conflicts and pandemics. It assesses risks (Ivanov and Dolgui, 2021; Park and Singh, 2023; Sharma et al., 2022; Van Der Vegt et al., 2015), enhances visibility (Ivanov, 2024; Tiwari et al., 2024), optimises routes (Ershadi and Shemirani, 2022; Li et al., 2022a; Oksuz and Satoglu, 2023) and provides predictive analytics for proactive (Qrunfleh et al., 2023) decision-making. The application of technology in such situations varies based on specific challenges and requirements and depends on the strategies and technologies adopted by logistics professionals.

Table 2 presents the technological role during disruptions, including the journal’s published articles, context and technologies used. The table is used for designing trendy technological features (Figure 3), dominant technologies (Figure 4) and technological frameworks.

Digitising the SC process, which involves planning, implementing, controlling, marketing, distributing, financing and storing goods and materials, provides information sharing, transparency, automation, flexibility and collaboration capabilities that enable resilient and sustainable SC systems capable of responding to and recovering from disruptions. For instance, using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in humanitarian SCs aids network connectivity, facilitates data collection and enables the delivery of medical supplies, food and equipment to inaccessible areas or areas with damaged infrastructure, thereby improving response times (Masroor et al., 2021). In various and large-scale agriculture SCs, this UAV technology can also be effectively used for crop spraying, monitoring, irrigation and fertilisation tasks. However, the effectiveness of technology in shifting the SC paradigms depends on the level of implementation, technical development and the dominance of a particular technology to offer the necessary technological features for most sectors. The BCT provides COVID-19 patient information sharing to handle immigration and emigration processes, building a more RSC by establishing an immutable recording of data logs, supporting audibility, provenance and transparency and food distribution (Kalla et al., 2020; L’Hermitte and Nair, 2021). To fully implement BCT and get its benefits, a few obstacles, such as privacy and security requirements, legal disputes, scalability and resource utilisation efficiencies, must be overcome (Kalla et al., 2020).

Following a comprehensive review, we have framed five critical technological applications (Figure 2) that are essential in developing the RSC system based on the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic disruption. This framework shows the role and features of technology in overcoming SC challenges during disruptions. The framework systematically answers the research questions. The selected articles are analysed using the main frameworks discussed in the following subsections.

The adoption of diverse DTs to manage the overall SCs (Akbari and Hopkins, 2022) helps to develop resilience, which is the ability of a firm to sense, adapt to and quickly respond to the changes, in SCs (Li et al., 2022b). In the literature, it is explored how DTs assist businesses in creating a coordinated SC through information sharing and collaborative decision-making, which may improve the four key elements of resilience, namely, flexibility, transparency, visibility and agility. Agility and SC risk management culture can both positively affect resilience (Hald and Coslugeanu, 2022).

During the pandemic, the most prevalent technological features were information and data gathering, processing and sharing; visibility; transparency; collaboration; and tracking (Figure 3). This and other features are investigated as enablers of SCR. The resilient antecedents that benefit from overcoming SC disruption from AI, BCT, BDA and IoT technologies are visibility, transparency, collaboration, traceability and risk mitigation (Figure 3). Chen et al. (2019) and Kalaiarasan et al. (2023) claimed radio frequency identification to collect data, IoT to manage data, CC to increase visibility, BCT to provide visibility and security, AI to support prediction and visibility and BDA to improve visibility and predictive capability (Ivanov and Dolgui, 2021). While technology offers numerous advantages for enhancing SCR, numerous challenges remain open to further improvements. System failure, cyberattacks and loss of data privacy and security are some of the associated risks of technology (Van Der Vegt et al., 2015). As the SC businesses are interconnected and integrated, the SCR depends on technological performance, and individual organisational capability to overcome disruptions that affect the overall SC network. Furthermore, adopting any of these technologies requires affordability, adaptability and an assessment of capabilities, cost and associated risks. Also, organisations face challenges from first-movers as they implement innovative technological features.

The COVID-19 pandemic affected a firm’s visibility, which might be enhanced by the technological capability for data collection, management and analytics and connectivity (Belhadi et al., 2021; Kalaiarasan et al., 2023). I4.0 technology enhances business operations management, resource circularity, product quality and manufacturing flexibility (Fragapane et al., 2022), promoting information sharing and collaboration among stakeholders (Hald and Coslugeanu, 2022; Piyathanavong et al., 2024). However, the increased reliance of the global SC economy on technology raises security concerns at all levels, including small firms and multinationals. Information flows (Chen et al., 2019) across the SC process pose significant risk management challenges for SC partners. Information disruptions to SC processes could result in economic, customer and market losses (Dynes et al., 2007; Skipper and Hanna, 2009).

Compared to commercial SCs, humanitarian SCs require an emerging technology for reactive approaches, such as big data analytical technologies (Dubey et al., 2021b). SC readiness, responsiveness and recovery require quality information sharing using emergent technologies to respond, mitigate disruption and recover from it, which also helps in enhancing resilience in the SC. Our finding indicates that obtaining well-organised and high-quality humanitarian SC data is not straightforward. By implementing technology, humanitarian organisations can gain access to this data. To enhance future preparedness, a robust technological infrastructure is necessary to process and convert humanitarian supply chain data into meaningful information. However, these technological infrastructures are expensive, time-consuming to implement and donor-dependent for humanitarian organisations. DTs improve firm information processing, resilience and flexibility in high-information-complexity environments by integrating supplier, customer and internal processes, enhancing supplier diversity and inclusion (Cui et al., 2023; Xiong et al., 2021).

Our analysis revealed that information gathering, analysis and sharing played a vital role in coordination, collaborative decision-making, connectivity and manufacturing flexibility, which helped to improve the SCRs.

Ensuring visibility and transparency between the downstream and upstream partners can significantly reduce the vulnerability in SCs. Among the I4.0Ts, end-to-end visibility, transparency, flexibility, a shorter SC network structure and tracking of goods across the SCs make the BCT (Figure 4) preferable to improve operational excellence (Dennehy et al., 2021; Sharma et al., 2022; Spieske and Birkel, 2021).

While AM, drones, augmented reality (AR)/virtual reality, CC and robots have demonstrated their importance in developing RSCs, they have shown the fewest technological features to overcome shocks in the SC compared to AI and BCT (Figure 4). However, one or more technologies are anticipated to stand out from the crowd by offering the necessary technological features and having to change SC paradigms. BCT is a decentralised platform that obviates the need for a middleman (Ivanov, 2021) and permits peer-to-peer direct transactions while also validating data. SCR is achieved because the secure, decentralised platform minimises disruptions caused by data inaccuracies or intentionally fraudulent activities. Due to the lesser dangers of hacking, contractual disputes, negotiated privacy, political instability, expensive adherence to governmental norms and regulations and uncertainties related to financial institutions, BCT is preferred (Kayikci et al., 2022). Blockchain helps overcome challenges in humanitarian SC, such as resource waste, poor collaboration, theft behaviours and trust, by providing traceability and transparent information, reducing disruption risks during COVID-19 and fostering trusted approaches (Jellason et al., 2024; Kumar, 2020; Xiong et al., 2021). Moreover, BCT showed improved food product quality, responsiveness, employee tracking and reduced cost of SC transactions (Kayikci et al., 2022; Kumar and Kumar Singh, 2022). Ye et al. (2022), discussed the breadth and depth of DTs deployment of firms that might affect a firm’s SC visibility, access to high-quality information, agility and ability to adapt to market changes. In their analysis, both breadth and depth of DTs of asset deployment improved the visibility of the SC, however, only depth improves the SC agility. By contrast, other studies (Khan et al., 2023; Schmidt and Wagner, 2019) have highlighted the potential drawbacks of adopting blockchain, such as failure to process large transaction data, high energy consumption, high investment risks, fewer SC networks and context-dependent applications. Furthermore, Jellason et al. (2024) reported concerns against BCT over the disclosure of trade secrets, poor protection against incomplete or inaccurate information, economic and technical challenges, high transaction and information management costs, willingness to pay for the technology, trust in the technology and governance-related issues. However, technological barriers to blockchain-based technology implementation, such as low access to technology, lack of scalability, inadequate expertise and complexity, can be overcome through IT infrastructure development and education. Privacy-related concerns, such as data breaches and sensitive business information, require the involvement of countries, governments, regulatory bodies, stakeholders and consumers. Overall, the BCT showed promising traceability and visibility to enhance the SCR.

During the pandemic period, technological innovation demonstrated how SC is increasingly reliant on DTs to improve the overall functioning of the SC network (Das et al., 2022b). Distance collaboration tools such as AR enabled by telepresence technologies relaxed firms with greater digital maturity and automation through the integration of I4.0T during COVID-19 (Narayanamurthy and Tortorella, 2021). The pandemic period increased the demand and adoption of I4.0T (Akbari and Hopkins, 2022; Wankhede and Vinodh, 2023) so that higher levels of modularisation, flexibility (Hald and Coslugeanu, 2022), resilience and performance (Balakrishnan and Usha, 2021) were obtained. The lower the costs of changes, the higher the resilience during disruption periods (Alexopoulos et al., 2022). However, firms are concerned about human interactions when operating remotely, as well as the budget required to transition to advanced technologies such as IoT, BDA, social media and AI (Jefroy et al., 2022; Matthews et al., 2022; Van Der Vegt et al., 2015). Humans play a crucial role in major sectors like health care, manufacturing, logistics and public service. However, the adoption of technology as a countermeasure against COVID-19 reduced workforce demand in public transport, hotels, stores and distribution. Therefore, ensuring human presence is essential for sustainable digital transformation.

Ivanov’s (2021) study on BDA, AI, BCT, track and trace systems, early warning systems and digital platforms and collaborative suppliers’ portals showed collaborative problem-solving capabilities with different stakeholders, disruption problem analysis, recovery way-outs, real-time recognition of supply risks and early detection of supply risks. BDA demonstrated its potential for efficient humanitarian response activities, particularly in the areas of real-time information flows and communication (Kumar et al., 2022). According to our investigation, the disruptions negatively impacted collaboration and integration. However, technology played a crucial role in overcoming these challenges through high-quality information, ultimately leading to improved SCRs.

I4.0 technology aims to boost industry productivity and efficiency by shifting traditional production and SC paradigms (Dieste et al., 2022; Malacina and Teplov, 2022). Successful implementation of IoT, cloud services and BDA in manufacturing firms can lead to high performance, automation and decentralised decision-making in SC (Nayernia et al., 2022). However, I4.0 technology layers and levels of adoption are required (Frank et al., 2019). Raja Santhi and Muthuswamy (2022) categorised technological implementation challenges as technical, socio-cultural, administrative and process. In their literature analysis, technical difficulties include scalability, compatibility with existing infrastructure, technological complexity, a high degree of computerisation, unwillingness to share data, security and privacy: standardisation, investment cost, management support and environmental challenges as financial difficulties. The technological process challenges include a lack of skilled professionals, implementation procedure details and immaturity. On the contrary, employee resistance, relative advantages, market uncertainty, fear of change and lack of cooperation between SC partners are socio-cultural challenges. Based on the four categorical paradox theory and their intersection, the main paradoxical tensions existing in I4.0T implementation are learning, organising, belonging and performing (Dieste et al., 2022). Rad et al. (2022) presented I4.0 technologies’ benefits, challenges and success factors to SC performance. This gives a foundation and structural perspective for upcoming technological features.

Automated SCs could be made possible by technology advancements, allowing control towers to manage supply and demand risks by using higher degrees of awareness. Research can support SC automation advancement by creating better decision-making frameworks to assess and consider various technologies (Van Hoek, 2020). Synchronising business processes with SC networks in a chaotic environment, companies’ technological capability for information sharing enhances SCR (Chatterjee and Chaudhuri, 2022). There are research outputs related to the impact of disruptions on SC performance using simulation models (Ivanov and Dolgui, 2021). However, current technological progress lacks a real-time simulation model for humanitarian SCs. The application of technologies in emergency response operations requires proper assessment measures through simulation models to apply in humanitarian activities, as humanitarian activities, particularly emergency response operations, are sensitive and demand better accuracy.

The competitive dimension and technological position of the firm in the SCs make it difficult to optimise the operation and SCs during turbulent periods. Globalised competition and integrated SCs require higher effort, cost and cooperation with suppliers. And the limitation of technological infrastructure makes the integration between firms challenging and high transaction costs. However, the COVID-19 pandemic compelled organisations to the optimum to use the available resources and technologies such as blockchain, AI and the IoT for the improvement of efficiency and performance within an SC (Rajesh, 2022). The adoption of automated technologies such as AI helps to increase SCR and sustainability by improving real-time inventory management, optimising production and stocks, optimising logistics operations, allowing alternative purchasing scenarios, balancing supply and demand planning and production, increasing SC traceability and bringing top management support (Kazancoglu et al., 2023). AI-assisted large firms during the COVID-19 pandemic by automating the delivery system to overcome transport cost escalations and delivery delays.

Organisations with AI analytical capabilities, during disruptions in information sharing (Chatterjee and Chaudhuri, 2022; Kazancoglu et al., 2023; Van Hoek, 2020) and technical support among SC partners are critical for better alliance management capabilities (Dubey et al., 2021a). According to their argument, as an SC enabler, AI analytical capabilities affect operational and financial performance due to its capacity to reduce working capital, maximise return on capital used, enhance product quality, improve product delivery and increase inventory turnover ratio. The use of AI, machine learning and data analytics helps to enhance risk management capability (Hald and Coslugeanu, 2022; Ivanov and Dolgui, 2021). Researchers (Sangeetha et al., 2022; Van Der Vegt et al., 2015) argue that the disadvantages of technologies stem from the significant investment capital required. Nevertheless, the cost associated with technology is essential for building resilient SCs. Technology cannot improve with experience without human involvement. In addition, technology may increase unemployment (Choi et al., 2022), negatively impacting a country’s development. Business Data Analytics has revolutionised business operations, but there is a research gap on how organisations should adopt and use it for strategic objectives. Understanding Business Data Analytics linkage between knowledge assets, agility and performance is crucial for competitive advantages (Park and Singh, 2023). Ivanov and Dolgui (2021) further investigated the importance of data analytics to improve the resilience of SC operations and disruption risks using large data.

Zahoor et al. (2024) explored how DTs improved the dynamic capabilities of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and enabled them to provide personalised solutions to their customers and other stakeholders during the COVID-19 pandemic. The IoT offers creative ways to handle risks and challenges, resulting in tangible financial gains due to increased SCR and transparency. The combination of IoT, AI and machine learning helps to identify suppliers during the disruption period (Hald and Coslugeanu, 2022; Spieske and Birkel, 2021). The Internet of People enabled SMEs to seize the opportunity to develop value-creating capabilities, make use of underused resources (Eslami et al., 2024) and diversify business networks and new markets. Eslami et al. (2024) discovered that I4.0 DTs improve the impact of SC agility on financial performance. AI and BDA provide early warning systems and detect bottlenecks in the SC helping to take proactive measures. BDA showed the potential to determine the right manufacturing capacity and safety stock levels during the COVID-19 pandemic (Spieske and Birkel, 2021).

Technological capabilities assist organisations in understanding current disruption recovery and future interruption mitigation capabilities (Naz et al., 2022). In uncertain and disruptive situations, disaster relief workers require collaboration and information sharing to resolve specific cases. The role of emerging technologies such as AI-driven BDA capabilities for improving information alignment and collaboration, which are elements of agility (Altay et al., 2018), is crucial (Dubey et al., 2021b; Kazancoglu et al., 2023). Our findings are consistent with Sharma A. et al.’s (2020) work, which suggests that SCs must be modelled in an agile, adaptable and forward-looking way to respond to unexpected disruptions. However, most companies in the SCM prefer to adopt different technologies in finance (Choi et al., 2023), information and risk management applications to provide their services and products to customers. In SC finance, technologies such as information technologies, blockchain and AI are used in different contexts. The evolution of financial technology companies during the pandemic period is due to the fragmented use of technology in SC financing. This might be due to security concerns, the need for customised technologies, the need for specific technological features that determine competitive advantages and the lack of information about existing technology. However, this creates integration and collaboration challenges between industries. Using I4.0T throughout the SC network and value chain is better than using them separately. Other studies (Frederico et al., 2023) showed that I4.0T does not support interoperability, the capability of systems to transact with other systems.

Based on the current trends and upcoming developments, the authors designed future technological aspirations (Figure 5) that depict the role of technology in building RSC. Figure 5 combines both commercial and humanitarian SC activities based on their technical and sustainable (Kazancoglu et al., 2023) development goal requirements.

We hope that this complete approach will help researchers use it as a conceptual framework for future empirical work in SCRs and will assist practitioners in successfully adopting customised technology for creating and improving SCRs.

The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the development of resilience and survivability in industries, enabling them to withstand significant disruptions. Drawing from the results of our sample analysis and the growing volume of research requests received by research journals, we proposed possible directions for future research.

The paper has time-horizon and scope-related limitations. Firstly, this SLR is performed during the COVID-19 maturation period. However, extending the study period could help include a broader range of knowledge, which is a limitation of this study. Secondly, this study considers only the role of technology in developing RSC systems. This study focuses on a period of disruption in evaluating the role of technology, despite considerable existing literature on technology’s usage across different periods. However, future researchers can provide further new and deep insights into the topic by including upcoming studies, findings and other evidence. Finally, in this SLR, it is possible that the depth of understanding and interpretation of the analysed literature can sometimes be overlooked. To ensure accurate understanding and interpretation, we thoroughly examined the existing literature through a comprehensive literature review.

Coordination and information exchange issues were the main challenges within the SC systems (Kumar and Kumar Singh, 2022). In humanitarian SC activities, volunteers and humanitarian experts use DTs to communicate both one-way and two-way, coordinate resources and conduct overall response activities (Durugbo et al., 2022). Technology greatly assists fundraising activities compared to traditional systems, as it simply and dominantly reaches every corner of the world. DTs like blockchain, AI and BDA have shown significant potential in overcoming disruptions like COVID-19, promising future transport (Choi and Shi, 2024) and security systems. Investigating the combined effect of various technologies in the SC is crucial for enhancing SCR, ensuring effective emergency response and enhancing customer satisfaction. However, the combined effect of technology with operations management tools for SCR enhancement remains open for further studies. For instance, in agricultural SC, AI applications, several electronic machines and technology platforms, namely big data, IoT, cyber-physical systems, etc. are interconnected. In the agricultural SC, the descriptive application of AI allows farmers with large herds to understand the behaviour of individual cows, which improves milk yield (Olsen and Tomlin, 2020), whereas Leme et al. (2020) proposed the use of BCT to monitor the overall health of cows. Thus, future research and innovation could direct the technological integration between firms to avoid the use of various technologies for the same application in SC systems. The model research question could be: How can the technological features integrate with the practical aspects and improve the current system, as well as how could they mitigate future challenges and risks? Which technology or technologies have the potential to solve coordination problems during disruption times? Future research can also explore the use of simulation models in humanitarian activities, focusing on how they enhance technology effectiveness; improve supply forecasting, distribution and coordination; and overcome infrastructure challenges.

Security risks can be mitigated through data protection measures. Data privacy, confidentiality infringement and tracking violations are increasing, posing a threat to SC integrity (Wang et al., 2021b) by allowing employees to exploit data for cyberattacks, bullying and defamation (Verma et al., 2023). Most privacy concerns are the result of transparency and visibility in SC processes. Technological misuse is primarily caused by factors such as easy entry, subscription requirements, weak hacking spots, lack of ethical training and government regulations in SC, which are allowing companies to exploit opportunities. However, unethical firms’ technological practices can result in trust issues, market losses and sustainable business competitiveness. The introduction of Bitcoins (cryptocurrency technologies) into the finance operations interface (Choi et al., 2022) facilitates transactions and allows easy entrance for large numbers of players in digital banking, which raises security concerns such as cheating, the weakening of governance structures and threats to the traditional banks that have served the SC. Thus, future research can investigate how individual loyalty impacts the benefits of technology in SC firms and their societal concerns. How does technology react to privacy issues and data breaches to ensure information gathering, analysis and sharing?

Common technological standards that help to measure performance, quality and customer values are vital for technological development. These standards identify the impact of the outstanding performance of technologies. The acceptance of technology in the industry depends on the standardisation and regulations set to perform a specific task and withstand security challenges. Studies (Ardolino et al., 2022; Rad et al., 2022) have found that the socio-economic effects of I4.0 across various countries are hindered by a lack of industry standards. Mass production applicability of AM technologies is hindered by limited design standards. Different materials require different AM technologies (Olsen and Tomlin, 2020). This leads to high processing costs and monopolistic producers. Future research can deal with the role of technology standardisation in building resilient and sustainable SCs. How do technology standards help with SC traceability? Does technology standard have a significant impact on employee innovation performance? Architectural reference is crucial for setting technical details of technological setups, which determines the misuse and security concern of a technology. Thus, it is not sufficient to set the technical details of technologies to study their impact on SC performance alone. Therefore, future research is expected to measure the technical details of the technologies from a business perspective. To fully implement, benefit from and build a resilient SC system using DTs, the SC requires sharing data among the SC stakeholders and governments, training and similar standards (Tiwari et al., 2024).

Technology introduces new systems, processes, knowledge, skills and culture, which disrupts existing organisational processes and integrity and exposes operational inefficiencies for some time (Tiwari et al., 2024; Van Der Vegt et al., 2015). The introduction of new technologies into organisations during the pandemic affected human resources because of the complexity of work due to the integration of technology and digitalisation. Employees expect to see technologies reduce their effort and increase their productivity instead of being a threat because, in most cases, it is believed technology has no significant impact on employee performance. Thus, it is vital to create a comprehensive understanding of the benefits, capabilities and limitations of the new technology before deploying it in any organisation. For instance, the COVID-19 pandemic urged the transition from human operation to a higher automation level and digitalisation in a container terminal (Zhou et al., 2022); however, most technologies implemented at the port are meant to improve efficiency or reduce human contact, yet they have not changed the mode of operation. Relevant research on these issues is scarce at this moment. What is the cost of technology compared to labour? Developing countries face challenges in SC integration, resilience, sustainability, cleaner production and circular economy practices due to limited technology adoption, necessitating further studies on I4.0 DTs. An interesting research question could be: What is the potential of technology in improving developing countries’ SCs beyond controlling, monitoring and connectivity?

The adoption of I4.0T in logistics and SCs and the dominance of a particular technology are far from advanced utilisation due to different factors (Dieste et al., 2022; Hopkins, 2021). The first obstacle is the need for businesses to actively demand change and incorporate new practices, which often requires abandoning their previous methods, ensuring confidentiality and making a separate effort. The second problem is that the adoption of technology and its integration take longer than anticipated because of factors such as finance, readiness, security, operational complexities and skilled professionals (Murtaza et al., 2004; Wankhede and Vinodh, 2023). The third barrier is the absence of regulators and legislators who can set standards for technological innovations while protecting company information, customer data and risks. To shift the SC paradigm, AI and BCT have shown the most significant technological features, followed by BDA, automation and IoT (Figure 3). Research on technological dominance could be: Which technology specifically or a combined technology overtakes visibility, traceability and tracking roles? Which technology or technological feature has the potential to process large and complex data?

Existing literature is scattered across research streams, highlighting a gap in understanding the potential of technologies to improve SCR within SC networks. As a result, it becomes essential to conduct this SLR to bring the disparate body of information together, offer a thorough framework for directing future research and its practical application and pinpoint present trends and opportunities.

Our analysis has uncovered potential theoretical implications that could offer valuable insights. Firstly, this SLR adds to the existing body of knowledge by expanding the understanding of the role of technology during disruption times and which features of the technology are shifting the paradigms of the SC systems. The technological features are changing the way businesses operate, compelling the SC to depart from the traditional system to be resilient and sustainable in both normal and disruptive environments (Birkel et al., 2023). This aids in identifying the implications of these technologies for resilient SC systems, encouraging academicians and technologists to work on them as existing technologies are updated or replaced with new ones.

Secondly, this study foresees disruptive technological breakthroughs that may change the SC paradigms based on popular technological features that help in overcoming disruptive events and building resilience in the SCs. This study found that AI, BCT, BDA, IoT and automation technologies are among the potential technological innovations the SCs are expected to implement in the future, which is consistent with the work of Akbari and Hopkins (2022). This technological study on the development and needs of upcoming technological features aids researchers in comprehending how technology will influence SC systems in the future.

Thirdly, previous research has concentrated on the adoption, benefits, barriers, implementation and financial aspects of technologies in SCs (Khan et al., 2023). However, this study adds to the body of knowledge by revealing a significant gap between technological and SC progress. Studying the technological progress and the SC gap provides the conceptual foundation for future discussions about developing a resilient SC system for disruptions that can adapt, respond and recover from SC shocks (Kaliyan et al., 2023).

We highlighted the significance of technology in logistics and SC activities, emphasising its potential for improved visibility, transparency, collaboration and efficiency (Kazancoglu et al., 2023). We also underscore the need for I4.0T and improved data-driven forecasting (Dieste et al., 2022) during disruption and economic sanctions.

Firms that do not adopt technology cannot develop long-term SCM, performance or resilience, and they risk failure during a disruptive event (Kazancoglu et al., 2023). This study provides a broad range of understanding about the role of technologies concerning logistics and SC activities. As a result, it assists logistics and SC professionals and owners in evaluating and selecting dominant, feature-rich and compatible technologies.

The framework highlights the role of technology in enhancing SCR, allowing practitioners to select the appropriate technology for improved visibility, transparency, collaboration, integration, efficiency, analytical capability or information processing and sharing based on their business model.

Most I4.0T, according to the SLR, are still in their infancy and lack mature technology that integrates various technological features, which could be due to finance, readiness, security and skilled professionals (Dieste et al., 2022; Ivanov, 2021; Zahoor et al., 2024). Although I4.0T claim to collect, manage and analyse data, COVID-19 has shown how the SC system has experienced an unprecedented level of disruption, such as limited access and an inability to process large and complex transaction data. Improving the ability to use big transaction data in a short period and data-driven forecasting helps to bring resilience to SCs. This offers technologists, digitalisation managers, SC managers and related practitioners the opportunity to improve the technology for better implementation.

Furthermore, given the scarcity of studies on the role of technology in resolving SC issues during the Russia–Ukraine conflict, we emphasised the need for improved technology implementation amidst economic sanctions.

The global SCs, the driving force behind globalisation and a crucial economic channel were affected by disruptions that are both combined and successive events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the China–USA trade war, the conflict in Ukraine and the heavy sanctions on Russia (Estrada and Koutronas, 2022). To address these issues, mostly I4.0 was used to run manufacturing plants, meet raw material shortages and reduce the impact of inflation. The rapid technological changes instruct the SC system to face a new paradigm, to make the SC more resilient, enabling better response to future crises. Based on this SLR, it is found that the current technology requires a range of new features, such as collaboration, connectivity, hybridised systems, interoperability and security. These findings suggest that a new, more modern technological shift is needed that reflects the latest developments in Industry 5.0 (Jefroy et al., 2022). The SC network is strong and crisis-resistant because of technology use (Das et al., 2022b). The study provides a framework for future researchers to explore current and future technological requirements. The study gives ideas holistically on the full technological features and/or requirements for the logistics and SC management sector. Technology enhances resilience but requires organisations to balance its benefits with potential drawbacks like dependency, complexity, costs, security risks, skill gaps, information overload and reduced human interaction.

The authors thank the editors and anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggested improvements.

Disclosure statement: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability: No data was used for the research described in the article.

Funding: This research didn’t receive grants from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.