The purpose of this paper is to adopt the theory of planned behavior to close the entrepreneurial attitude–intention–behavior gap in the entrepreneurship field as well as test the key moderators of the entrepreneurial process, starting from entrepreneurial attitude and intention to behavior to engage in entrepreneurial activities – namely, entrepreneurship education.
The research used a sample of 2,566 students from 16 universities in Vietnam. First, Cronbach’s alpha and confirmatory factor analysis have been used to test the reliability and validity of scales. Then the coefficient paths in the conceptual framework were tested through structural equation modeling, and indirect associations were estimated via the PROCESS bootstrapping approach.
The research illustrated that both attitudes toward entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intention serve as the central antecedents in the formation of entrepreneurial behavior. Also, when students are more entrepreneurially educated, the linkage between attitude toward entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial behavior was hypothesized to become stronger, yet the relation between entrepreneurial intention and behavior was weakened.
This research suggests useful recommendations for educators and policymakers to encourage university students’ favorable attitudes toward entrepreneurial activities, their intention to engage in them and their subsequent entrepreneurial behavior.
This research is expected to make a significant contribution to the entrepreneurship literature by closing the entrepreneurial attitude–intention–behavior gap as well as enriching our understanding of the influence of entrepreneurship education on the entrepreneurial process. Importantly, this research reveals that entrepreneurial education significantly moderates the effects of attitude toward entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intention on entrepreneurial behavior.
1. Introduction
The pursuit of entrepreneurial careers has garnered attention from both researchers and practitioners in the field of entrepreneurship in recent times (Nguyen, 2023; Mondal et al., 2023; Henry and Lewis, 2023). The reason for this heightened interest is the recognition that entrepreneurship not only drives economic development at home and abroad but also contributes to social progress, lowers the rate of joblessness and cultivates originality and inventiveness (Duong, 2022; Salman and Ismael, 2023). The creation of new ventures or entrepreneurial behavior (EB) is a central component of the entrepreneurial process and is frequently considered a key outcome of entrepreneurship while several scholars contend that venture creation is comprised of several entrepreneurial activities (Lopes et al., 2023; Wach and Bilan, 2023). In addition, the role of actions in entrepreneurship has been established in prior studies, which have shown that individuals are prompted to pursue and act on business opportunities (Loan et al., 2021). This is reflected in entrepreneurship literature, where entrepreneurship actions are commonly described as intentionally planned behaviors that arise from a favorable entrepreneurial mindset, motivation and cognitive processes (Cui and Bell, 2022).
The establishment of a new business venture typically involves cultivating a positive entrepreneurial mindset (or attitude toward entrepreneurship – ATE) and forming the intention to pursue entrepreneurial activities (or entrepreneurial intention – EI) (Nwosu et al., 2022). Consequently, a body of prior studies have investigated the nature of entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions, as well as their causes and effects (Lopes et al., 2023). However, although many individuals have positive attitudes and intentions toward conducting a behavior, empirical studies have shown that not all of them lead to actual behavior (Ajzen, 2020). This phenomenon is commonly known as the “attitude-intention-behavior gap” and has been observed across various domains of human behavior, such as proenvironmental action (Chi et al., 2022) and entrepreneurship (Duong and Vu, 2023b). Given the limited information available on the factors that facilitate the transition from entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions to actual behavior (Cui and Bell, 2022), it has become imperative to investigate the linkages among these variables (Duong and Vu, 2023b). Consequently, scholars in the field of entrepreneurship have emphasized the need for research that elucidates the precursors to EB and narrows the gap between attitudes, intentions and actual behavior (Fayolle and Liñán, 2014; Naia et al., 2017). As a result, there has been a growing call for studies that can provide insight into the mechanisms that drive EB (Corbett et al., 2018; Harima et al., 2021).
In addition, as numerous countries’ governments have made substantial investments to promote entrepreneurial actions (Mondal et al., 2023), there has been growing academic interest in the outcomes of entrepreneurial instruction and preparation (Duong and Vu, 2023b; Henry and Lewis, 2023). As a result, countries’ governments have adopted entrepreneurial education (EE) as an effective approach to promoting entrepreneurship activities (Lopes et al., 2023). Although there are numerous studies research on the impact of EE, almost all of these studies only focus on exploring the effect of EE on ATE (Duong, 2021) or EI (Anwar et al., 2021; Duong and Vu, 2023a). There is a scarcity of literature about the impact of EE on EB (Hägg and Gabrielsson, 2019). Also, the findings about the effect of EE on ATE and EI are inconsistent (Sahputri et al., 2023; Hägg and Gabrielsson, 2019). Some studies found that EE has a positive effect on ATE (Duong, 2021; Maheshwari and Kha, 2022) and EI (Handayati et al., 2020; Pham and Le, 2023), while other studies showed that EE is not significantly related to ATE (Wu and Wu, 2008) or EI (Nowiński et al., 2017; Iwu et al., 2021). These mixed findings imply that our current understanding of how EE impacts the development of business ventures is insufficient. This highlights the need for further research to explore the specific influence of EE on the formation of entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions and behavior (Cui and Bell, 2022). Consequently, the objective of this study is to investigate the role of entrepreneurship education in narrowing the gap between entrepreneurial attitude, intention and behavior by using the theory of planned behavior (TPB) framework. Specifically, this study aims to examine the moderating effects of entrepreneurship education on the entrepreneurial process by testing whether the positive relationships between entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions and behaviors are strengthened when university students receive more EE.
2. Theoretical framework
2.1 Entrepreneurship: the theory of planned behavior and the attitude–intention–behavior gap
Although there are many theories of EI, previous studies mainly revolved around two fundamental theories, the entrepreneurial event model (EEM) (Shapero and Sokol, 1982) and the TPB (Ajzen, 2011). Up to now, there has been much empirical evidence supporting the applicability of these two theories in the field of entrepreneurship. EEM suggests that the factors that influence the intention to start a business are perceived desirable, potential to act and perceived feasibility (Shapero and Sokol, 1982). TPB model suggests that the factors leading to the intention to start a business are attitudes toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavior control. Both the EEM and TPB models are almost similar, in that perceived desirability is considered similar to attitude toward the behavior and perceived feasibility is considered close to perceived behavioral control (Autio et al., 2010). The main differences between these two models are the potential to act and subjective norms (social pressure to perform entrepreneurial activities). Despite having similar characteristics, TPB is more widely applied because it is proven to be a highly reliable theory and predicts actual behavioral intentions in many different fields (Wallace and Buil, 2023; Gansser and Reich, 2023), including entrepreneurship (Cui and Bell, 2022).
The TPB (Ajzen, 1991) has emerged as one of the most influential theories in the study of human behavior (i.e. EBs) and has been widely applied to explain various types of human behaviors (Morales-Perez et al., 2022; Duong, 2022). The TPB can be characterized as a social cognitive framework that facilitates the understanding of how individuals make deliberate decisions by weighing the pros and cons of a particular action (Duong and Vu, 2023b). In the TPB model, behavioral intention is determined by three factors: an individual’s assessment of whether a specific behavior is favorable or unfavorable (attitude toward behavior – ATE), their perception of societal expectations to perform or abstain from that behavior (subjective norms – SN) and their perception of how easy or difficult it is to carry out the behavior (perceived behavior control). On the other hand, behavior is believed to result directly from both perceived behavior control and behavioral intention (Ajzen, 1991).
The reliability of the TPB in explaining both the intentions and actual behaviors across various domains, including entrepreneurial activities, has been affirmed by previous meta-analytic reviews (Zaremohzzabieh et al., 2019). The implication of the TPB to entrepreneurship-related domains is particularly suitable for several rationales. First, entrepreneurial action is typically purposeful, planned and intentional, rather than impulsive, making them suitable for analysis using the TPB framework (Duong and Vu, 2023b). Second, the inclusion of SN in the TPB framework highlights the significance of informal intervention (Ajzen, 1991). Previous research has indicated that the opinions of reference persons, whether approving or disapproving, can significantly influence a person’s intentions to establish a new venture and subsequent behaviors (Morales-Perez et al., 2022). Third, the TPB is a well-developed theory that can be applied to explain various aspects of human behavior, such as sustainable behavior (Wallace and Buil, 2023; Nguyen, 2021), utilization of automated vehicles (Rejali et al., 2023) and entrepreneurship (Duong and Vu, 2023b). Because entrepreneurship is commonly regarded as a process that begins with a person’s favorable attitude toward entrepreneurial activities, is driven by the intention to engage in entrepreneurial actions and culminates when that person establishes and begins operating their own business (Gieure et al., 2020; Duong, 2022), attitudes and intentions regarding business venture creations are thus crucial predictors of EB (Duong and Vu, 2023b).
Although EB is widely recognized as the fundamental aspect for comprehending the entrepreneurial process sufficiently, there is no universal definition of EB in entrepreneurship literature (Gieure et al., 2020; Duong and Vu, 2023b). In our research, the term “EB” is adopted from the research of Gieure et al. (2020) and is defined as an individual’s capacity or knowledge regarding the various components of a business venture. This encompasses the essential understanding and know-how that enables individuals to engage in entrepreneurial actions, representing the acquired ability and knowledge that supports nascent entrepreneurs in creating a new business venture. In the entrepreneurial process, an individual first needs to have a positive ATE and the intention to create a new venture. However, actual EB involves taking actions that demonstrate an individual’s ability to carry out entrepreneurial activities, such as seeking out opportunities, identifying and assessing risks and mobilizing resources to start and run a business. This behavior may occur before the individual creates a new venture (Duong, 2022; Duong and Vu, 2023b).
Although many studies have demonstrated a positive and significant correlation between a person’s ATE and their intentions to engage in entrepreneurial activities, which is consistent with the principles of the TPB (Tseng et al., 2022; Wach and Bilan, 2023), little-known about how these attitudes and intentions drive their EBs (Duong and Vu, 2023b) and the findings of these studies are also not consistent. Indeed, while some recent studies reported that the correlation between intentions and behaviors is quite strong, ranging from 0.90 to 0.96 (Ajzen, 2020), several meta-analyses have revealed that behavioral intention alone can only explain about 27%–28% of the variation in behavior (Armitage and Conner, 2001). Moreover, some scholars argue that the relationship between intention and behavior in the context of entrepreneurship is not as strong as it is for other behaviors (Gieure et al., 2020; Duong and Vu, 2023b). Using longitudinal data, Kautonen et al. (2015b) showed that 31.0% of the variation in EB can be explained by EI. Recently, Duong (2022) reported that attitudes and intentions can explain 33.6% and 27.4% of the variance of EBs among master students.
Noticeably, it appears that in previous studies that used the TPB model, the relationship between PBC and actual behavior was often neglected, despite the intention to carry out the behavior and perceived behavior control are the immediate antecedents of actual behavior in the TPB (Ajzen, 2020). If PBC is strong, EB is thus more likely to be performed (Kautonen et al., 2015a). Furthermore, several researchers have statistically estimated the interrelationships among the three core dimensions in the TPB (ATE, SN and PBC) and the intention to create a novel venture (Tseng et al., 2022; Virasa et al., 2022); some scholars, however, argue that the impact of the three motivational antecedents on EI may differ in various research contexts (Maheshwari and Kha, 2022). More importantly, while limited research has been conducted on the relationships between core motivational factors in the TPB theory, some scholars propose that SN may serve as a strong predictor of ATE (el Bouk et al., 2022), whereas PBC can significantly influence individuals’ attitudes toward entrepreneurship. In other words, when individuals believe that they have the necessary skills, knowledge and resources to start and run a new business, they are more likely to have a positive ATE. This, in turn, can increase their EI and ultimately lead to the actual creation of a new venture. Based on theoretical arguments, the following hypotheses are formulated.
EB is positively interrelated with (a) EI, (b) ATE and (c) PBC.
EI is positively interrelated with (a) ATE, (b) SN and (c) PBC.
ATE is positively interrelated with (a) SN and (b) PBC.
2.2 The direct and moderating role of entrepreneurship education
Acquiring knowledge is widely recognized as a key asset for achieving prosperity in a business, and empirical research has consistently shown that EE programs are effective in teaching entrepreneurship (Lopes et al., 2023; Nwosu et al., 2022; Hou et al., 2023). EE encompasses a range of pedagogical initiatives aimed at equipping students with the skills, knowledge and ethical framework necessary to successfully establish and manage a business venture. This can include formal coursework, programs and educational experiences designed to foster and develop learners’ entrepreneurial abilities, attitudes, knowledge and skills (Alakaleek et al., 2023). The impact of EE can initially manifest in three fundamental constructs of TPB: ATE, SN and PBC. These influences can subsequently transfer to the development of EIs (Tseng et al., 2022). Nevertheless, previous research has yielded mixed results regarding the relationship between EE and ATE. For instance, some studies have reported a significant positive effect of EE on ATE (Truong et al., 2022), while others have found no significant association (Maheshwari and Kha, 2022). This inconsistency may be due to the fact that students may not be adequately instructed on how to integrate the skills and knowledge they acquire through entrepreneurial courses and programs into their overall entrepreneurial attitudes (Maheshwari, 2022). Moreover, despite recent research efforts, it remains unclear whether greater exposure to EE leads to a higher perception of support and approval from family, friends and significant others among students (Tseng et al., 2022; Truong et al., 2022; Otache et al., 2019), while some studies revealed that participation in entrepreneurial courses and education can lead individuals to view entrepreneurship as a more achievable and manageable endeavor, potentially enhancing their PBC. In this way, EE can help nurture a sense of confidence and mastery among individuals pursuing entrepreneurial ventures (Maheshwari and Kha, 2022).
Many prior studies have explored the impact of various entrepreneurship programs on EI, spanning multiple educational levels, including primary, secondary and high school, as well as university and institute settings (Lopes et al., 2023; Cui and Bell, 2022; Elert et al., 2015). EE serves as a significant precursor to stimulating students’ aspirations to pursue entrepreneurship by equipping them with the fundamental knowledge and skills necessary to establish and manage a successful business venture (Cassol et al., 2022). This knowledge base and skill set can serve as a source of motivation for students looking to create and grow their own businesses (Qudsia Yousaf et al., 2022). Findings of several recent research supported this perspective, with scholars finding that entrepreneurial activities can be effectively taught through pedagogical programs (Nwosu et al., 2022; Cassol et al., 2022). Moreover, research has indicated that students who have received EE and training are more likely to possess a heightened interest and intention to pursue entrepreneurial activities (Cui and Bell, 2022). Noticeably, given the limited understanding of actual EB, many prior studies have used EE as a proxy to predict EI (Maheshwari and Kha, 2022). However, few studies have explored the impact of EE on the broader entrepreneurial process, including EB. As a result, there is a need for additional research to fully explore the potential influence of EE on entrepreneurial action (Fayolle and Liñán, 2014). Cui and Bell (2022) also show that EE activities, such as involvement in start-up clubs, start-up design competitions, visiting business firms, internships, discussions with real entrepreneurs, business games, participating in entrepreneurial incubation projects and business networking not only increase EI significantly, but these EE activities also have a contributive effect on EBs. Consequently, the following hypotheses are formulated.
EE is positively interrelated with (a) ATE and (b) SN, and (c) PBC, (d) EI, (e) EB.
Earlier studies using the TPB have demonstrated that the connections between attitude, intention and behavior are not always clear-cut, particularly when it comes to the relationship between intention and subsequent behavior (Duong, 2022; Calza et al., 2020). According to Shirokova et al. (2016), the correlation between EI and EB is usually no higher than 0.3 and often around 0.1. This finding has prompted recent studies to investigate the contextual and environmental factors, such as EE programs and perceived university support, that influence the intention–behavior link in the entrepreneurial process (Cui and Bell, 2022). Also, according to our best knowledge, almost all previous studies test only the moderating impacts of EE on the links between antecedents and EI (Shah et al., 2020) but overlook whether the links between EI and EB are substantively moderated by EE or are not. Hypothetically, we suggest that EE may facilitate the progression from ATE to EI and from intention to enter entrepreneurial activities to EB at least in three ways.
First, undertaking the cognitive viewpoint in entrepreneurship behavior studies, individuals often behave with their target in their mind (Cui and Bell, 2022). Whether an individual’s entrepreneurial attitude and intention can be transferred into EB might depend on their knowledge acquisition from entrepreneurship education programs (Shirokova et al., 2016). In entrepreneurship, individuals behave in entrepreneurial ways not only to reach their goals but also to use their entrepreneurial knowledge, which they acquired from entrepreneurial training programs, in real-life businesses (Lopes et al., 2023). Thus, if these individuals perceive that they can implement the knowledge they have gained from EE, they may behave in accordance with their EI. Second, an individual may want to choose an entrepreneurial career because it can bring many more benefits than others (Meoli et al., 2020). When enrolling in EE programs, individuals can perceive the benefits of being entrepreneurs such as time flexibility, creating wealth for oneself and creating a social impact. Therefore, when individuals have confidence that there are many advantages of entrepreneurship, they are more likely to act in accordance with their EI and ATE. Third, for certain behaviors, intentions translated into the actual behavior can be determined by whether individuals can recall their intention and motivation (Ajzen, 2020). Thus, a similar case is expected in entrepreneurship when EE acts as a catalyst to help remind individuals of their behavioral intention and favorable attitude. During the EE program, individuals can be reminded to behave in accordance with the intention they formed previously.
EE moderates the link between ATE and EI such that when students are more entrepreneurially educated, the positive link between ATE and EI becomes stronger.
EE moderates the link between ATE and EB such that when students are more entrepreneurially educated, the positive link between ATE and EB becomes stronger.
EE moderates the link between EI and EB such that when students are more entrepreneurially educated, the positive link between EI and EB becomes stronger (see Figure 1).
3. Research method
3.1 Data collection and sampling
Using university students as the study sample has several advantages, such as ease of access, cost-effectiveness and the potential to capture the impact of EE on individuals at an early stage in their career (Gieure et al., 2020). However, it is important to note that students may not necessarily represent the broader population of potential entrepreneurs, and their EIs and behaviors may differ from those of experienced entrepreneurs (Duong and Vu, 2023b). Therefore, it is important to replicate the findings of studies on student samples with other samples of potential entrepreneurs or actual entrepreneurs to validate the generalizability of the results.
The data for this study was collected from August 2020 to February 2021, which corresponds to the first semester of the 2020–2021 academic year. At that time, measures to control and manage the spread of COVID-19 had been effective. The current research used a stratified random sampling approach to conduct the data collection, which consisted of four phases. In the first phase, the researcher selected three main historical and geographical regions (Northern Vietnam, Central Vietnam and Southern Vietnam) and a total of 1,707,025 students from 224 Vietnamese universities/institutes. The data was collected from three public universities and three private universities in Northern Vietnam, two public universities and two private universities in Central Vietnam, and three public universities and three private universities in Southern Vietnam. The selection of universities was random, based on entrance grades. In this phase, lecturers were asked to assist in data collection. Ultimately, university students were not coerced and had the option to take part in the study, and they answered the survey questionnaire directly. A total of 4,000 questionnaires were distributed to university students, and 2,672 questionnaires were completed, resulting in a response rate of 66.8%. After excluding 106 questionnaires due to missing values, data from a final sample of 2,566 university students (64.15%) from 16 Vietnamese universities were used for analysis.
The sample of university students included different age groups with varying frequencies, such as 39.9% aged 18–19, 55.6% aged 20–24 and only 4.5% over the age of 25. The sample consisted of 41.1% male and 58.9% female students. The majority of students, accounting for 64.6% of the sample, were enrolled in economics and business management, while only 35.4% were enrolled in engineering and other fields. In terms of parental occupation, 25.8% and 27.4% reported that their fathers and mothers were self-employed; 11.5% and 13.4% reported that their fathers and mothers were managers in an organization; and 6.0% and 3.1% reported “other” occupations for their fathers and mothers, respectively. In addition, 20.1%, 25.9%, 21.1% and 32.9% of the students were in their first, second, third and final years of university, respectively.
3.2 Scales and questionnaire development
To investigate the direct and moderating impact of EE in the entrepreneurial process and to bridge the gap between attitude, intention and behavior in entrepreneurship literature, this study used a survey questionnaire to gather data. Moreover, the scales used in this study have been previously used and validated in other research studies. For instance, the five-item scale used to measure EE was adapted from the research of Walter and Block (2016) and Adekiya and Ibrahim (2016). The scale of ATE, PBC and EI was adapted from the study of Liñán and Chen (2009). The scale of SN was adapted from the research of Liñán and Chen (2009) and Kolvereid (1996). We used a seven-item scale to measure EB, which was taken from the research of Gieure et al. (2020). The items are represented in Table 1. Participants rated their agreement with each item on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Demographic characteristics of students
| Variables | Frequency | (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Gender | ||
| Male | 1,055 | 41.1 |
| Female | 1,511 | 58.9 |
| Age | ||
| From 18 to 19 years old | 1,023 | 39.9 |
| From 20 to 24 years old | 1,427 | 55.6 |
| Over 25 years old | 116 | 4.4 |
| Educational fields | ||
| Economics and business management | 1,658 | 64.6 |
| Engineering and others | 908 | 35.4 |
| Years of study | ||
| First year of college | 517 | 20.1 |
| Second year of college | 664 | 25.9 |
| Third year of college | 542 | 21.1 |
| Final year of college | 843 | 32.9 |
| Mother’s occupation | ||
| Self-employed | 702 | 27.4 |
| Staff in an organization | 345 | 13.4 |
| Manager in an organization | 79 | 3.1 |
| Other | 1,440 | 56.1 |
| Father’s occupation | ||
| Self-employed | 662 | 25.8 |
| Staff in an organization | 295 | 11.5 |
| Manager in an organization | 153 | 6.0 |
| Other | 1,456 | 56.7 |
Note:
N = 2,566
To prevent the potential for common method bias in the survey responses, a back-translation method was used. To translate the 32 observed variables into Vietnamese, four independent experts were initially consulted and then asked to reach a consensus on the process of translation. The resulting Vietnamese version was then translated back into English by another expert, and any discrepancies were reconciled to produce the final survey questionnaire. To ensure that all respondents had a uniform understanding of the constructs covered in the questionnaire, a brief explanation was included in the questionnaire.
3.3 Data analysis
Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a statistical technique used to examine how variables within a complicated system are interrelated. In this study, SEM was used to examine the direct and moderating effects of EE on intention and behavior regarding entrepreneurship, while also concerned with the three component constructs of the TPB: ATE, SN and PBC. In addition, the PROCESS approach with bootstrap methodology was used to estimate the mediation coefficients. The bootstrapping sample size used in this study was 10,000, while the confidence interval was set at 95%. The bootstrap method is a resampling technique that involves generating multiple random samples with replacement from the original data to obtain estimates of the sampling distribution of a statistic. This approach allows for more accurate estimation of mediation effects and provides more robust statistical inferences (Hayes, 2022). SPSS 25.0 and AMOS 25.0 software were used to conduct the analyses.
4. Results
4.1 Normality and reliability of scales
To test the reliability and validity of the scales, both Cronbach’s alpha and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were conducted simultaneously. Although Cronbach’s alpha values for all scales exceeded the satisfactory threshold of 0.63 (see Table 1), the initial CFA findings indicated poor model fitness: χ2(449) = 5032.730, chi-square/df = 11.209, p < 0.01, GFI = 0.878, AGFI = 0.856, CFI = 0.885, TLI = 0.870, NFI = 0.876 and RMSEA = 0.063 (Hair et al., 2020). In addition, the standardized regression weights of EB5: “I have invested in an informal manner in some business” (0.230); EB7: “I belong to a social network that can promote my business” (0.202); EI4: “I am determined to create a firm in the future” (0.455); and ATE4:“Being an entrepreneur would entail great satisfactions for me” (0.369) were lower than 0.5. These items were eliminated before reperforming the CFA (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). The final result of CFA is demonstrated in Figure 2. Results showed a great degree of fitness: χ2(335) = 3561.009, chi-square/df = 10.630, p < 0.01, GFI = 0.901 > 0.9, AGFI = 0.880 > 0.8, CFI = 0.914 > 0.9, TLI =0.903 > 0.9, NFI = 0.906 > 0.9 and RMSEA = 0.061 < 0.08, while all t-tests of items were significant at 0.001 degree (Hu and Bentler, 1999). Furthermore, the results of the CFA indicated that the standardized regression weights of all observed variables were higher than 0.5, whereas the normality of all variables was confirmed because their skewness and kurtosis values fell within the expected range (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988).
The scales used in this study were evaluated for reliability and validity using the average variance extracted (AVE) and composite reliability (CR) (see Table 2). The AVE values for PBC and entrepreneurship education were found to be 0.457 and 0.460, respectively, which fell below the recommended cutoff value of 0.5. However, according to Fornell and Larcker (1991), if the AVE values are less than 0.5 but the CR values exceed 0.6 (in this study, PBC and EE had CR values of 0.832 and 0.810, respectively), the scales are still considered valid. In addition, the square roots of the AVE values for all variables were greater than their interconstruct associations. Therefore, all constructs in this study were found to be both reliable and valid.
Descriptive characteristics, Cronbach’s alpha and factor loadings of items
| Code | Variables | Cronbach’s alpha | Mean | SD | Skewness | Kurtosis | Factor loading |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EB | Entrepreneurial behavior [Gieure et al. (2020)] | 0.837 | 3.3193 | 0.64638 | −0.287 | 0.605 | |
| EB1 | I have experience in starting new projects or business | 0.799 | 3.2845 | 0.78094 | −0.116 | 0.293 | 0.733 |
| EB2 | I am capable of developing a business plan | 0.794 | 3.2116 | 0.87193 | −0.070 | −0.193 | 0.745 |
| EB3 | I know how to start a new business | 0.835 | 3.5456 | 0.82035 | −0.530 | 0.373 | 0.586 |
| EB4 | I know how to do market research | 0.785 | 3.4205 | 0.83801 | −0.333 | 0.014 | 0.775 |
| EB6 | I can save money to invest in a business | 0.805 | 3.1345 | 0.83971 | −0.068 | 0.060 | 0.733 |
| EI | Entrepreneurial intention [Liñán and Chen (2009)] | 0.908 | 3.4427 | 0.87490 | −0.295 | −0.185 | |
| EI1 | I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur | 0.883 | 3.4521 | 1.00750 | −0.267 | −0.413 | 0.812 |
| EI2 | My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur | 0.882 | 3.6076 | 1.01984 | −0.460 | −0.320 | 0.850 |
| EI3 | I will make every effort to start and run my own firm | 0.879 | 3.4256 | 1.05618 | −0.232 | −0.488 | 0.877 |
| EI5 | I have a very seriously through of starting a firm | 0.871 | 3.3769 | 1.02571 | −0.137 | −0.453 | 0.914 |
| EI6 | I have the firm intention to start a firm some day | 0.921 | 3.3515 | 1.00427 | −0.171 | −0.432 | 0.631 |
| ATB | Attitude toward entrepreneurship [Liñán and Chen (2009)] | 0.833 | 3.5474 | 0.74999 | −0.345 | 0.267 | |
| ATB1 | Being an entrepreneur implies more advantages than disadvantages to me | 0.786 | 3.3893 | 0.90914 | −0.173 | −0.130 | 0.746 |
| ATB2 | A career as an entrepreneur is attractive for me | 0.825 | 3.9770 | 0.88647 | −0.815 | 0.584 | 0.668 |
| ATB3 | If I had the opportunity and resources, I would like to start a firm | 0.767 | 3.5027 | 0.92221 | −0.220 | −0.108 | 0.774 |
| ATB5 | Among various options, I would rather be an entrepreneur | 0.773 | 3.3207 | 0.95738 | −0.101 | −0.285 | 0.800 |
| SN | Subjective norms [Liñán and Chen (2009); Kolvereid (1996)] | 0.846 | 3.7340 | 0.76340 | −0.483 | 0.642 | |
| SN1 | If I decided to create a firm, my closest family would approve of that decision | 0.825 | 3.7214 | 0.92901 | −0.544 | 0.100 | 0.750 |
| SN2 | If I decided to create a firm, my closest friends would approve of that decision | 0.754 | 3.7689 | 0.83583 | −0.599 | 0.592 | 0.853 |
| SN3 | If I decided to create a firm, people who are important to me would approve of that decision | 0.782 | 3.7116 | 0.85078 | −0.458 | 0.231 | 0.821 |
| PBC | Perceived behavioral control [Liñán and Chen (2009)] | 0.825 | 2.6426 | 0.66260 | 0.272 | 0.259 | |
| PBC1 | To start a firm and keep it working would be easy for me | 0.805 | 2.4704 | 0.84356 | 0.427 | 0.239 | 0.614 |
| PBC2 | I am prepared to start a viable firm | 0.776 | 2.3956 | 0.87760 | 0.582 | 0.249 | 0.763 |
| PBC3 | I can control the creation process of a new firm | 0.771 | 2.6442 | 0.88438 | 0.230 | −0.319 | 0.769 |
| PBC4 | I know the necessary practical details to start a firm | 0.790 | 2.6590 | 0.92793 | 0.260 | −0.353 | 0.687 |
| PBC5 | I know how to develop an entrepreneurial project | 0.795 | 2.5542 | 0.96083 | 0.430 | −0.222 | 0.648 |
| PBC6 | If I tried to start a firm, I would have a high probability of succeeding | 0.827 | 3.1321 | 0.95925 | −0.091 | −0.329 | 0.508 |
| EE | Entrepreneurship education [Walter and Block (2016); Adekiya and Ibrahim (2016)] | 0).808 | 3.3366 | 0.67348 | −0.289 | 0.757 | |
| EE1 | My school education helped me develop my sense of initiative – a sort of entrepreneurial attitude | 0.769 | 3.4224 | 0.96772 | −0.338 | −0.267 | 0.659 |
| EE2 | My school education helped me to better understand the role of entrepreneurs in society | 0.773 | 3.2868 | 0.95817 | −0.245 | −0.314 | 0.630 |
| EE3 | My school education made me interested to become an entrepreneur | 0.771 | 3.1520 | 0.85264 | −0.039 | 0.242 | 0.699 |
| EE4 | My school education gave me skills and know-how that enable me to run a business | 0.758 | 3.2931 | 0.85375 | −0.284 | 0.108 | 0.737 |
| EE5 | My school education has equipped me with the necessary abilities and expertise to start my own business | 0.781 | 3.5288 | 0.83803 | −0.447 | 0.297 | 0.662 |
4.2 Common method variance
To address common method variance (CMV) in our research, we used procedural and statistical measures. First, to minimize any potential bias, we presented the survey questionnaire in a shuffled order, with observed variables from all constructs mixed together. In addition, we took care to avoid using any phrasing that might influence responses. Furthermore, we surveyed a diverse group of university students from three different regions in Vietnam to reduce the impact of any regional or cultural biases. To further address the potential for CMV, we conducted Harman’s single-factor test using an unrotated factor solution. The results showed that the explained variance was only 34.29%, which is significantly below the widely accepted cutoff value of 50% (Podsakoff et al., 2003). We also conducted a factor-constrained CFA to test for CMV. However, the results indicated a very poor model fit with values of χ2(350) = 16119.859, chi-square/df = 46.057, GFI = 0.586, AGFI = 0.520, CFI = 0.580, TLI = 0.546, NFI = 0.575 and RMSEA = 0.133. These findings confirm that our study did not suffer from CMV (Cooper et al., 2020). To clarify, we conducted a test for a common latent factor and compared the standardized regression weights of all observed variables. The findings showed that the difference in these weights was very small (Δ < 0.2), indicating that CMV was not a significant concern in our data set.
4.3 Structural model
The results of the SEM analysis indicated that the models had a high level of fit. The values of the goodness-of-fit measures were as follows: χ2(380) = 2797.990, chi-square/df = 7.363, p < 0.01, GFI = 0.928 > 0.9, AGFI = 0.912 > 0.9, CFI = 0.939 > 0.9, TLI = 0.931 > 0.9 and RMSEA = 0.050 < 0.8 (Hair et al., 2020) (see Figure 3). R2 (squared multiple correlation) of EB, EI, ATE, PBC and SN reached 0.560, 0.616, 0.353, 0.206 and 0.322, respectively. These provided evidence that the model showed substantial insights regarding predictors of entrepreneurial attitude, intention and behavior with the data set collected from Vietnam.
The testing results of hypotheses are summarized in Table 3. Particularly, 12 hypothesized interrelationships have been statistically significantly proved in the expected directions (H1a, H1b, H1c, H2a, H2c, H3a, H3b, H4a, H4b, H4c, H4e and H6 were, therefore, supported); three hypothesized relationships were statistically insignificant (H2b, H4d and H5, therefore, were not supported); while one hypothesis was statistically significant in the opposite direction (H7, thus, was not supported).
Correlation matrix, the composite reliability and discriminant validity index
| Scales | CR | AVE | PBC | EB | EI | ATB | SN | EE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Perceived behavioral control | 0.832 | 0.457 | 0.676 | |||||
| Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.840 | 0.515 | 0.565** | 0.717 | ||||
| Entrepreneurial intention | 0.912 | 0.677 | 0.452** | 0.493** | 0.823 | |||
| Attitude toward entrepreneurship | 0.835 | 0.560 | 0.397** | 0.481** | 0.696** | 0.749 | ||
| Subjective norms | 0.850 | 0.655 | 0.228** | 0.374** | 0.359** | 0.424** | 0.809 | |
| Entrepreneurship education | 0.810 | 0.460 | 0.398** | 0.466** | 0.340** | 0.369** | 0.491** | 0.678 |
Notes:
N = 2,566, **Significant at 0.01 level (two-tailed); AVE = average variance extracted; CR = composite reliability; the diagonal values (in italic): the square root of AVE
In terms of the entrepreneurial attitude–intention–behavior links, results showed that EI was found to be a significant factor in explaining EB (H1a: β = 0.093; p-value < 0.001). Also, ATE was positively and strongly associated with EI (H2a: β = 0.718; p-value < 0.001) and EB (H1b: β = 0.105; p-value < 0.001).
With regard to the other associations between constructs in the TPB (Ajzen, 1991), results demonstrated that PBC is strongly and positively correlated with ATE (H3b: β = 0.497; p-value < 0.001), EI (H2c: β = 0.332; p-value < 0.001) and EB (H1c: β = 0.425; p-value < 0.001). SN were not found to have an impact on EI (H2b: β = 0.004; p-value > 0.05) but were positively related to ATE (H3a: β = 0.400; p-value < 0.001) (see Table 4).
Hypotheses testing
| Hypotheses | Estimate | SE | CR | p-value | Results | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| H1a | Entrepreneurial intention | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.093 | 0.021 | 4.422 | *** | Supported |
| H1b | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.105 | 0.023 | 4.549 | *** | Supported |
| H1c | Perceived behavior control | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.435 | 0.032 | 13.405 | *** | Supported |
| H2a | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial intention | 0.718 | 0.029 | 24.879 | *** | Supported |
| H2b | Subjective norms | → | Entrepreneurial intention | 0.004 | 0.026 | 0.154 | 0.878 | Not supported |
| H2c | Perceived behavioral control | → | Entrepreneurial intention | 0.332 | 0.037 | 8.906 | *** | Supported |
| H3a | Subjective norms | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | 0.400 | 0.030 | 13.231 | *** | Supported |
| H3b | Perceived behavioral control | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | 0.479 | 0.043 | 11.136 | *** | Supported |
| H4a | Entrepreneurship education | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | 0.158 | 0.041 | 3.832 | *** | Supported |
| H4b | Entrepreneurship education | → | Subjective norms | 0.700 | 0.035 | 19.789 | *** | Supported |
| H4c | Entrepreneurship education | → | Perceived behavioral control | 0.378 | 0.026 | 14.604 | *** | Supported |
| H4d | Entrepreneurship education | → | Entrepreneurial intention | 0.001 | 0.035 | 0.021 | 0.983 | Not supported |
| H4e | Entrepreneurship education | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.279 | 0.025 | 11.367 | *** | Supported |
| H5 | Entrepreneurship education x Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial intention | −0.007 | 0.010 | −0.667 | 0.505 | Not supported |
| H6 | Entrepreneurship education x Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.028 | 0.011 | 2.446 | 0.014 | Supported |
| H7 | Entrepreneurship education x Entrepreneurial intention | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | −0.043 | 0.012 | −3.718 | *** | Not supported |
Notes:
N= 2,566; *** p < 0.001
Regarding the effects of EE in the entrepreneurial process, entrepreneurship education was found to have significant impacts on ATE (H4a: β = 0.497; p-value < 0.001), SN (H4b: β = 0.700; p-value < 0.001), perceived behavior control (H4c: β = 0.478; p-value < 0.001) and EB (H4e: β = 0.279; p-value < 0.001). Yet it was not directly associated with EI (H4d: β = 0.001; p-value > 0.05). In addition, while entrepreneurship education was not found to moderate the link between ATE and EI (H5: β = −0.007; p-value > 0.05), it was observed to have a positive moderating effect on the relationship between ATE and EB (H6: β = 0.028; p-value < 0.05) but negatively moderated the EI-EB link (H7: β = −0.043; p-value < 0.001). Figure 4 depicts the plot for two significant moderation effects of EE on the entrepreneurial process.
Significant cross-level moderation impacts of entrepreneurial education on the entrepreneurial attitude–intention–behavior link
Significant cross-level moderation impacts of entrepreneurial education on the entrepreneurial attitude–intention–behavior link
The PROCESS macro approach with 10,000 bootstrapping samples for percentile bootstrap confidence interval and 95% level of confidence for all confidence intervals in output was used to estimate mediating coefficients (see Table 5). First, results revealed that EB was indirectly affected by ATE (βindirect ATB-EI-EB = 0.2308; p-value < 0.05), perceived behavior control (βindirect PBC-EI-EB = 0.1318; p-value < 0.05), SN (βindirect SN-EI-EB = 0.1251; p-value < 0.05) and entrepreneurship education (βindirect EE-EI-EB = 0.1234; p-value < 0.05) through EI. Second, EB was indirectly influenced by PBC (βindirect PBC-ATB-EB= 0.1182; p-value < 0.05), SN (βindirect SN-ATB-EB = 0.1413; p-value < 0.05) and entrepreneurship education (βindirect EE-ATB-EB = 0.1269; p-value < 0.05) via ATE. Third, ATE was found to significantly mediate the links between PBC (βindirect PBC-ATB-EI = 0.3215; p-value < 0.05), SN (βindirect SN-ATB-EI = 0.3227; p-value < 0.05), entrepreneurship education (βindirect EE-ATB-EI = 0.3172; p-value < 0.05) and EI. In addition, entrepreneurship education was noted to have indirect impacts on EI through PBC (βindirect EE-PBC-EI = 0.1948; p-value < 0.05), but not throughout SN (βindirect EE-SN-EI = 0.063; p-value > 0.05). Finally, PBC partially mediated the linkage between EE and ATE (βindirect EE-PBC-ATB = 0.1317; p-value < 0.05) and the relationship between entrepreneurship education and EB (βindirect EE-PBC-EB = 0.1721; p-value < 0.05), while SN was also determined as a partial mediator in the association between EE and ATE (βindirect EE-SN-ATB = 0.1749; p-value < 0.05).
The mediation paths
| Mediation coefficients | Indirect effects | SE | 95% confidence interval | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| LLCI | ULCI | |||||||
| Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial intention | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.2308* | 0.0172 | 0.1505 | 0.2179 |
| Perceived behavioral control | → | Entrepreneurial intention | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.1318* | 0.0108 | 0.1112 | 0.1533 |
| Subjective norms | → | Entrepreneurial intention | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.1251* | 0.0093 | 0.1071 | 0.1438 |
| Entrepreneurship education | → | Entrepreneurial intention | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.1234* | 0.0097 | 0.1047 | 0.1426 |
| Perceived behavioral control | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.1182* | 0.0096 | 0.0997 | 0.1375 |
| Subjective norms | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.1413* | 0.0105 | 0.1209 | 0.1623 |
| Entrepreneurship education | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.1269* | 0.0102 | 0.1076 | 0.1476 |
| Perceived behavioral control | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial intention | 0.3215* | 0.0177 | 0.2873 | 0.3571 |
| Subjective norms | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial intention | 0.3227* | 0.0170 | 0.2891 | 0.3559 |
| Entrepreneurship education | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | → | Entrepreneurial intention | 0.3172* | 0.0188 | 0.2804 | 0.3541 |
| Entrepreneurship education | → | Perceived behavioral control | → | Entrepreneurial behavior | 0.1721* | 0.0106 | 0.1517 | 0.1933 |
| Entrepreneurship education | → | Perceived behavioral control | → | Entrepreneurial intention | 0.1948* | 0.0137 | 0.1684 | 0.2217 |
| Entrepreneurship education | → | Subjective norms | → | Entrepreneurial intention | 0.0613 | 0.0155 | −0.1309 | 0.1929 |
| Entrepreneurship education | → | Perceived behavioral control | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | 0.1317* | 0.0112 | 0.1099 | 0.1542 |
| Entrepreneurship education | → | Subjective norms | → | Attitude toward entrepreneurship | 0.1749* | 0.0152 | 0.1454 | 0.2050 |
Notes:
LLCI = lower level of confidence interval; ULCI = upper level of confidence interval; SE = standard errors; *p < 0.05
5. Discussion and conclusion
Scholars are currently working to better understand the connections between entrepreneurial attitude, intention and behavior (Duong and Vu, 2023b; Cui and Bell, 2022) as well as how EE can play a role in supporting the entrepreneurial process (Lopes et al., 2023; Nwosu et al., 2022; Hou et al., 2023). This study is rooted in the view that entrepreneurship is a volitional behavior (Pérez-López et al., 2019), that is driven by cognitive mechanisms (Duong, 2022), can be explained by the TPB (Maheshwari and Kha, 2022) and may be nurtured by EE (Lopes et al., 2023). Consistent with this perspective, scholars suggest that the foundation of EB is based on the development of a positive ATE and an intention to participate in entrepreneurial activities (Shirokova et al., 2016). Furthermore, it is proposed that EIs and attitudes toward entrepreneurship are influenced by SN, perceived control and EE (Cui and Bell, 2022). Although many individuals have positive attitudes and intentions toward conducting a behavior, empirical studies have shown that not all of them lead to actual behavior (Ajzen, 2020), resulting in “attitude-intention-behavior gap.” Meoli et al. (2020) proposed that the impact of contextual factors on the associations between entrepreneurial attitude, intention and behavior is still uncertain. Thus, this study aims to explore the integration of entrepreneurship education into the entrepreneurial process and to narrow the gap between entrepreneurial attitude, intention and behavior.
Our study revealed that in spite of indicating a weak association, the impact of EI on EB was significant. This finding is in line with previous research (Shirokova et al., 2016; Cui and Bell, 2022). The study also revealed that having a favorable ATE exerted a significant and positive influence on EB. This finding suggests that a considerable number of university students perceive entrepreneurship as an attractive career option and prioritize it over stable employment (Maheshwari and Kha, 2022). This finding suggests that students are likely to translate their favorable attitudes and intentions toward entrepreneurship into actual entrepreneurial actions (Neneh, 2019). Furthermore, our study found that PBC had the strongest effect on the formation of EB. This indicates that students’ perception of how much control they have over engaging in entrepreneurial activities significantly influences their actual behavior. This finding is consistent with previous research (Kautonen et al., 2015a).
Our study found that the three motivational antecedents in the TPB had different impacts on EI. To be precise, our findings demonstrated that ATE and PBC exerted a robust and affirmative influence on EI, whereas SN did not appear to have a noteworthy effect. This outcome aligns with prior research on the topic (Tseng et al., 2022; Virasa et al., 2022) but differs from other research (Maheshwari and Kha, 2022). Furthermore, our investigation revealed a favorable correlation between SN and ATE, as well as between PBC and ATE. This indicates that while the endorsement or backing of peers, relatives and others may not directly trigger EI, it can still indirectly shape students’ intentions through their ATE. This outcome is in line with the TPB’s proposition that SN may not directly affect EI (Virasa et al., 2022). Prior research has disregarded the indirect effect of SN on EI. However, our investigation demonstrates that although the favorable views of people in the immediate environment may not have a direct impact on students’ EI, their ATE can mediate the effect of SN on entrepreneurship and ultimately influence EIs.
Regarding the moderating and indirect impacts of EE on entrepreneurship, our investigation showed that EE did not exert a direct influence on the intention to pursue entrepreneurship. This outcome aligns with previous studies on the topic (Nowiński et al., 2020). Nonetheless, our research findings suggest that EE directly contributed to the development of favorable attitudes toward entrepreneurship, PBC and EB. Specifically, our study showed that students who received EE tended to exhibit more positive attitudes toward entrepreneurship, perceived greater ease in engaging in entrepreneurial activities and exhibited a higher propensity to engage in EBs. Moreover, the study showed that while a positive ATE was strongly linked to EB, EE weakened the connection between EI and behavior. This means that although favorable attitudes toward entrepreneurship were more likely to result in entrepreneurial action among entrepreneurially educated students, their intentions to engage in entrepreneurial activities were less likely to translate into actual behavior. These outcomes may be attributed to the fact that entrepreneurship education programs in Vietnam place greater emphasis on theory rather than practical applications (Maheshwari and Kha, 2022), which may lead students to view the knowledge they gain from these programs as difficult to apply in real-world business scenarios. Therefore, students may be hesitant to translate their EIs into actual behaviors.
5.1 Theoretical contributions
Our research has several contributions to literature. One of the critical contributions is that it sheds light on the gap between attitude and behavior in entrepreneurship literature. Specifically, the study finds that EE can play a vital role in moderating and potentially closing this gap. Under this framework, entrepreneurship education programs can play a significant role in helping students achieve their entrepreneurial goals by focusing on the perceived benefits of taking entrepreneurial actions. In addition, the research findings contribute to the broader entrepreneurship literature by investigating the role of entrepreneurship education as a moderator in closing the intention–behavior gap. Unlike previous studies that often treated intention and behavior as the same or highly correlated, this study used the TPB framework to demonstrate the crucial role of entrepreneurship education in bridging the gap between intention and behavior (Ajzen, 2020). However, this study highlights that a gap between intention and actual behavior remains in the entrepreneurship domain. Thus, our findings empirically confirm the significance of intention in understanding behavior. In addition, this study provides strong evidence by examining the impact of entrepreneurship education on the entrepreneurial process of university students and establishing the direct and moderating role of entrepreneurship education in the process of entrepreneurship.
5.2 Practical and managerial implications
The results of this research have practical and managerial implications for those involved in fostering entrepreneurship, such as nascent entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship educators and policymakers. The study highlights the importance of having a positive ATE and EI as the foundation of the entrepreneurial process. As such, it is crucial for nascent entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship educators and policymakers to promote and cultivate these attributes to foster the development of the entrepreneurial ecosystem (Duong and Vu, 2023b). Moreover, our findings suggest that policymakers should prioritize entrepreneurship education programs as a key strategy for promoting entrepreneurial activities. These programs and strategies can be designed to cultivate a positive ATE and enhance PBC among students. By doing so, these programs can contribute to bridging the intention–behavior gap and promoting entrepreneurial activities (Cui and Bell, 2022). Furthermore, policymakers should pay attention to the practical aspects of entrepreneurship education programs and ensure that they are tailored to provide students with the knowledge and skills required for successful entrepreneurship.
The findings from our study indicate that adopting a strategic approach centered around entrepreneurship education programs can be an effective means of fostering a positive ATE and motivating students who already have a favorable attitude to pursue entrepreneurial activities. Nonetheless, it is important to bear in mind that this approach should be based on practical, hands-on learning experiences and exposure to actual business scenarios, along with greater extracurricular activities, to equip students with the requisite knowledge and competencies for entrepreneurship (Nwosu et al., 2022). These measures could help students maintain their EI and translate it into actual action (Cui and Bell, 2022). Our research findings suggest that educational policymakers and educators can benefit from optimizing the indicators used to evaluate the outcomes and effectiveness of EE programs. Typically, the effectiveness of such programs is assessed by measuring EI or attitudes toward entrepreneurship. However, while the EI is an important predictor of EB, it does not necessarily result in actual EB; hence, it is recommended that indicators of EB, such as creating a business plan, choosing a business name and hiring employees, should also be included in the assessment index of EE programs. This would provide a more accurate measure of the program’s impact and effectiveness.
The empirical findings derived from our rigorous study have profound implications that hold considerable promise for the advancement of international business education. The intricate relationship between entrepreneurship education and its direct and indirect influence on EBs, as elucidated through the prism of the TPB, offers educators and institutions valuable insights into enhancing the effectiveness of their pedagogical approaches. This research uncovers a nuanced understanding of how entrepreneurship education can be strategically harnessed to mold the entrepreneurial mindsets and actions of students, especially within the realm of international business endeavors. First, the observed substantial impacts of entrepreneurship education on various factors such as attitudes toward entrepreneurship, subjective norms, perceived behavior control and EB underscore the crucial role that education plays in shaping students’ entrepreneurial mindset and actions (Cui and Bell, 2022). To leverage these insights, international business education programs should consider enhancing their curriculum design to incorporate not only theoretical knowledge but also practical experiences, case studies and real-world examples (Duong, 2022) as well as foster a holistic understanding of global market dynamics, cultural nuances and ethical considerations (Uddin et al., 2022). By cultivating a proentrepreneurial culture on campus through events, guest speakers and networking opportunities, institutions also can foster a supportive environment for budding entrepreneurs (Sahputri et al., 2023).
Furthermore, as the global economy becomes increasingly interconnected and cross-cultural interactions proliferate, the implications of these findings reverberate far beyond the confines of academia (Meoli et al., 2020). They call for a reevaluation and refinement of existing curricula and instructional methodologies. In response, educational institutions must proactively design and implement forward-thinking strategies that immerse students in experiential learning environments, enabling them to grapple with authentic international business challenges. Integrating real-world case studies, simulations and interactive cross-cultural experiences into the curriculum can provide students with a tangible understanding of the complexities that define global business transactions. By fostering a dynamic and interactive learning environment, educators can better equip students to navigate the intricate maze of international markets, regulations and diverse cultural norms. Through this approach, students can develop not only a heightened awareness of international business intricacies but also the skills to navigate diverse business environments adeptly. Moreover, the implications extend to the imperative of cultivating a global mindset, nurturing cultural sensitivity and fostering ethical decision-making in aspiring entrepreneurs. International business education can transcend conventional boundaries by instilling the significance of responsible and sustainable business practices in a global context. Thus, the study’s findings not only underscore the pivotal role of entrepreneurship education but also emphasize its potential to shape the next generation of globally astute entrepreneurs who are primed to excel in an interconnected and rapidly evolving international business landscape.
Furthermore, given the international focus of our study, it becomes imperative to tailor educational approaches to encompass cross-cultural dimensions of entrepreneurship. By integrating cross-cultural case studies and discussions, educational programs can prepare students to navigate diverse entrepreneurial landscapes. Indeed, encouraging open dialogue about cultural nuances, communication styles and ethical considerations can foster a rich appreciation for diversity and enable students to develop the intercultural competence needed to thrive in international business scenarios. A critical facet of the implications involves shaping students into socially responsible and ethically conscious entrepreneurs. In an era where sustainability and corporate social responsibility have transcended buzzwords to become core business imperatives, international business education must embrace its role in imparting ethical decision-making frameworks. By weaving discussions on ethical considerations, environmental stewardship and social impact into the curriculum, educators can instill values that align with sustainable development goals, ensuring that future entrepreneurs are equipped to address the complex ethical dilemmas inherent in global business practices (Duong and Vu, 2023a; Aboobaker et al., 2023; Yi, 2020).
Finally, the implications of our study’s findings underscore the pivotal role of entrepreneurship education in shaping the trajectory of international business education. By strategically leveraging the insights derived from the TPB, educators have the unique opportunity to foster a generation of globally astute entrepreneurs who possess not only the requisite business acumen but also the cultural intelligence and ethical fortitude to thrive in an interconnected world. This necessitates a paradigm shift in instructional paradigms, encouraging educators to embrace innovative and immersive pedagogical methods that transcend traditional boundaries and prepare students for the multifaceted challenges of international business. As the landscape of global commerce continues to evolve, the implications of these findings serve as a guiding compass for educators seeking to inspire, empower and equip the next generation of international business leaders.
5.3 Limitations and avenues for future research
The current study presents a framework that uses entrepreneurship education to moderate the relationship between entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions and behaviors among university students. However, there are limitations to this study that offer potential avenues for future research. The first limitation of this study is its cross-sectional design, which only permits exploring the entrepreneurial attitude–intention–behavior in the short term or certain point in time (Duong and Vu, 2023b). Longitudinal studies should be used in further studies to provide a more in-depth understanding of the transformation process from attitude and intention to behavior (Duong et al., 2023). By collecting data at multiple time points, researchers could observe the changes in attitudes, intentions and behavior over time and investigate the causal relationships among them. This approach could offer more valuable insights into the factors that facilitate or impede the transition from intention to behavior and help policymakers design more effective entrepreneurship education programs. Moreover, future studies could examine the specific aspects or components of entrepreneurship education that may contribute to the negative moderation effect on the intention–behavior association. It could investigate, for instance, whether certain aspects of the program design, curriculum or pedagogy could be improved to better support students in translating their intentions into actual behaviors. In addition, studies could explore whether cultural or societal factors in emerging countries could play a role in the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education programs and their impact on the intention–behavior association (Meoli et al., 2020). Furthermore, while this study has provided insights into the gap between attitude, intention and behavior in the entrepreneurship domain, further research could explore other contextual and social factors that might moderate these relationships. For instance, future studies could investigate the influence of supportive environmental factors, such as government policies and funding opportunities, or the role of supportive organizational factors in promoting EBs. Exploring the impact of relevant others, such as family and peers, on the attitude–intention–behavior relationship also could offer a more comprehensive understanding of the entrepreneurial process (Shirokova et al., 2016; Cui and Bell, 2022). Finally, EB scale has been adopted from the research of Gieure et al. (2020). Although this scale has been tested for convergence and discriminant validity in many recent studies (Loan et al., 2021; Duong, 2022; Bouarir et al., 2023; Cai et al., 2021; Lyu et al., 2023), there are still many conflicting opinions about this scale. Therefore, further studies should adopt the EB scale from other studies, such as Kautonen et al. (2015b) and Shirokova et al. (2016) to validate our conceptual model.
This research is funded by National Economics University, Hanoi, Vietnam.
