Comparative representation of intercultural communicative competence in textbooks: are Spanish and Iranian EFL/ESL textbooks preparing learners for a globalized world? Open Access

“Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.”

John Dewey

In an increasingly interconnected world, the significance of intercultural communicative competence (ICC) in foreign language education is widely recognized (Garcia, 2022). ICC, defined as the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately across various cultural contexts (Byram, 1997; Deardorff, 2020), extends beyond linguistic proficiency to encompass cultural awareness, attitudes and interaction skills. Davidson (1974) emphasized that understanding a sentence requires contextual awareness, not just grammatical accuracy. Given English as a lingua franca (Seidlhofer, 2013), integrating ICC into English as a Foreign/Second Language (EFL/ESL) education is crucial for preparing learners to navigate cultural nuances and foster effective communication (Tran and Duong, 2018).

EFL/ESL textbooks play a pivotal role in fostering ICC through exposure to diverse cultural contexts (Kourdis and Zafiri, 2022). However, studies highlight that textbooks often focus on surface-level cultural elements – such as fashion, food and festivals – while neglecting deeper cultural values and perspectives (e.g. Morady Moghaddam and Tirnaz, 2023; Silvia, 2015). For example, Silvia (2015) found that Indonesian high school EFL/ESL textbooks predominantly feature local culture, focusing on themes such as food, arts, and landmarks, often at the expense of target and international cultures. This narrow focus limits students’ understanding of intercultural dynamics. Similarly, Morady Moghaddam and Tirnaz (2023) argued that representing Iran solely as a religious tourism destination or through cultural products does not foster ICC. Their study found that Iranian high school EFL/ESL textbooks provide insufficient representation of diverse cultures, thereby depriving language learners of exposure to authentic and varied cultural contexts, an essential component for developing ICC.

In Europe, where English is the most widely spoken language across 16 European Union (EU) member states, improving cultural and intercultural competence is increasingly regarded as fundamental for effective communication (European Union, 2019). Reflecting this need, Syrbe and Rose (2016) evaluated German EFL/ESL textbooks and found an over-reliance on British English, presenting a fixed image of language users and cultures. Similarly, Robles and Laborda (2022) explored the Spanish EFL/ESL textbook “Baccalaureate” and discovered a prevalence of British cultural aspects, with a relative absence of cultural content from other countries. This reflects that many EFL/ESL textbooks still lack adequate ICC content, limiting learners’ ability to engage meaningfully with various cultures (see Tafazoli and Egan, 2022).

Given the pressing need for developing ICC in a globalized world, this study aims to critically analyze the representation of ICC in EFL/ESL textbooks from two culturally distinct contexts: Iran and Spain. By examining these materials, this research seeks to contribute to a deeper understanding of how ICC is integrated into language education, identifying the gaps and areas for improvement that could enhance the effectiveness of EFL/ESL instruction.

Culture is deeply embedded in language, shaping how individuals interpret words, behaviors and worldviews (Cortazzi and Jin, 1999). In foreign language education, cultural content is not an add-on but an essential element of language itself (Kramsch, 1993). Effective ELT programs must incorporate cultural content to help learners navigate intercultural encounters and avoid stereotyping (Byram, 1997; Byram et al., 2002). Given the central role of textbooks in language learning, their content significantly influences students’ ICC development (Council of Europe, 2016). However, research suggests that many EFL/ESL materials reinforce cultural biases and fail to encourage meaningful intercultural engagement (Kourdis and Zafiri, 2022; Morady Moghaddam and Tirnaz, 2023; Rosyidi and Purwati, 2017).

Studies analyzing ICC representation in EFL/ESL textbooks have primarily focused on internationally developed materials used in countries such as Spain, Poland and Sweden. Research indicates that inner-circle cultures (i.e. countries where English is the first language and holds institutional dominance) tend to dominate textbook content. In contrast, outer-circle culture (i.e. where English functions as a second language and plays a key role in governance, education and public), and expanding-circle cultures (i.e. where English is primarily a foreign language used for international communication) are either negatively represented or entirely omitted from textbook narratives (Liljeblad, 2021; Vivas-Peraza, 2023; Zhang and Su, 2021). Liljeblad (2021) found that Swedish textbooks reinforce inner-circle cultural norms while neglecting diverse perspectives, limiting students’ exposure to intercultural communication. Similarly, Zhang and Su (2021) analyzed Chinese and German textbooks, concluding that the former focuses primarily on factual cultural knowledge while overlooking students’ ability to respond to cultural issues, whereas the latter marginalizes source cultures in favor of inner-circle representations.

Similarly, studies on locally developed EFL/ESL textbooks from Iran, Turkey, Tunisia and Indonesia, highlight an overemphasis on local culture providing limited opportunity for learners to compare their own culture with target and/or international cultures (Abid and Moalla, 2019; Gheitasi et al., 2020; Morady Moghaddam and Tirnaz, 2023). Rosyidi and Purwati (2017) found that Indonesian textbooks predominantly feature local traditions with limited intercultural tasks. Similarly, Abid and Moalla (2019) examined Tunisian textbooks and noted that dialogues often feature imagined native speakers rather than real-world intercultural interactions, limiting students’ preparedness for global communication.

The need for improved ICC representation in EFL/ESL textbooks is particularly pressing given the role of English as a global lingua franca. Authentic materials that incorporate source, target, and international cultures provide learners with opportunities to develop cultural awareness and engage in diverse communication contexts (Ahmed, 2017). However, many textbooks remain imbalanced. Spanish materials, for example, disproportionately emphasize British and American cultures, neglecting broader global diversity (Vivas-Peraza, 2023). Iranian textbooks, on the other hand, focus heavily on local culture – mainly literature, art and tourism – while overlooking international perspectives, restricting students’ ability to develop intercultural awareness (Gheitasi et al., 2020).

While previous studies have analyzed Iranian and Spanish EFL/ESL textbooks separately, there is limited comparative research on ICC representation in these distinct contexts. This study seeks to bridge this gap by examining two high school textbooks, Vision 1 (Iran) and Network ESO 4 (Spain), to evaluate their ICC content. By identifying strengths and weaknesses in each textbook’s approach to ICC, this research aims to offer strategies for improving intercultural learning in EFL/ESL classrooms. The study addresses the following research question:

This study was designed to analyze the extent to which Iranian and Spanish EFL/ESL textbooks, specifically Vision 1 and Network ESO 4, represent ICC. A content analysis approach was used, as this method involves systematic reading and judgment (Cohen et al., 2018). By breaking down the texts into units of analysis, developing categories, codifying these units, conducting frequency counts and analyzing the resulting data, researchers can uncover patterns, regularities and relationships between the texts (Denscombe, 2014).

The textbooks selected for this study include Vision 1, part of the “English for Schools Series” published and distributed by the Iranian Ministry of Education since 2013, and Network ESO 4, a textbook frequently used in Andalucia, Spain. Network ESO 4, published by Burlington Books. The selection of these books is based on their widespread use in their respective educational contexts and their role in shaping students’ exposure to cultural content in EFL/ESL instruction. Moreover, Vision 1 is a compulsory textbook for Grade 10 students (approximately 16 years old) in Iranian high schools. For the analysis of this study, the students’ books will be the primary focus.

The evaluation of ICC involves multiple criteria, including textbook aims and objectives, language learning content, activities and cultural orientation. To identify the main criteria for evaluating Vision 1 and Network ESO 4, a literature review was conducted, leading to the development of an initial draft checklist by the first researcher. This checklist was informed by Cunningsworth’s (1995) evaluation model, Byram’s (1997) ICC model and Cortazzi and Jin’s (1999) cultural orientation model.

The initial draft included 67 items, integrating transformed, modified or adapted items from the checklists of Arslan (2018), Iakovina and Karras (2022), Lei (2019), Mukundan et al. (2011) and Szczepaniak-Kozak (2013), along with original items created by the researcher. After revisions, the checklist was refined to 61 items, which were then validated by the other researchers. Following feedback and further adjustments, the final checklist was developed, consisting of 78 items structured around three main criteria and five components.

The initial draft was reviewed by two experts in applied linguistics and intercultural education, each with extensive experience in textbook analysis and ICC research. The experts assessed the checklist for clarity, relevance and coverage of ICC dimensions, and their feedback informed revisions to improve item wording, eliminate redundancy and ensure alignment with ICC constructs. The revised checklist was piloted with two EFL/ESL language teachers who applied it to selected textbook sections. Their insights helped refine the checklist for practical usability and consistency, leading to further modifications.

To investigate the differences between Vision 1 and Network ESO 4 regarding their representation of ICC, Table 1 presents an organized overview of the three criteria from the checklist, along with their respective components and sub-components.

To enhance the analysis’s depth and validity, an MA graduate English teacher was invited to act as the second coder. The analysis procedure was thoroughly explained during two online meetings. Each textbook was assessed (see Table 2), using the structured checklist to evaluate the activities, texts, and images as sources of intercultural information. It should be noted that 42 activities from Vision 1 and 109 activities from Network ESO 4 were excluded from the evaluation, as they did not contain any images or texts within the activities.

Cortazzi and Jin’s (1999) cultural model (source, target and international culture) was used alongside additional classifications (included/not included) to categorize the data. The evaluation focused on three key aspects:

1. the overall aims, objectives and cultural diversity of the topics;

2. ICC evaluation concerning cultural information, critical thinking, openness to other cultures and relevant skills; and

3. cultural orientation regarding global perspectives and intercultural interactions represented in the activities.

Furthermore, to ensure reliability, the researchers employed inter-rater reliability, a method in which multiple researchers agree on data categorization (Cohen et al., 2018). Out of 320 checklists (one per activity in each textbook), the first researcher recorded agreements across the checklist. Most disagreements (21 items) occurred during the analysis of Vision 1, and the coders finally reached an agreement of 84.78%, which is considered acceptable (Gwet, 2014).

The primary aim of this study was to determine the extent to which Iranian and Spanish EFL/ESL high school textbooks, Vision 1 and Network ESO 4, represent ICC. In addition, the study sought to uncover the differences between the two textbooks in their approach to representing ICC components. Through a comprehensive content analysis, it became evident that both textbooks have paid minimal attention to the development of ICC, limiting opportunities for students to engage in meaningful intercultural learning. To provide a clearer understanding of these results, the findings are discussed concerning two main evaluative criteria: general and ICC evaluation.

The general evaluation provided a holistic view of the aims and orientation of the two textbooks, offering insights into how each aligns with the principles of ICC. The analysis reveals that Vision 1 is explicitly shaped to enhance Islamic-Iranian cultural values rather than foster a broader intercultural perspective. The introductory section of Vision 1 emphasizes that the textbook seeks to highlight the significance of Islamic-Iranian civilization and identity:

This orientation is evident throughout the textbook, which offers minimal content related to target and international cultures. The organization of language content, as demonstrated in the table of contents, highlights source culture topics, such as Iranian scientists, and local tourist destinations. This content reinforces that local cultural heritage does not support the development of ICC, as it neglects broader cultural perspectives. In addition, the topics presented appear to lack engagement and relevance, omitting contemporary themes like global cultural festivals, music, technology, fashion and other current trends.

Conversely, Network ESO 4 does not include the Introduction section that explicitly outlines the textbook’s aims or its stance toward ICC. This absence makes it challenging to infer a clear pedagogical orientation. The table of contents, however, includes more varied cultural topics, quizzes and collaborative projects that might foster cultural curiosity. Nevertheless, the range of cultural topics is limited and appears somewhat restricted to popular travel destinations within the Anglophone world, such as “Getting around London” and “Incredible Iceland,” which indicates a possible focus on target culture content. Despite these limitations, it should be noted that Network ESO 4 includes cultural competence as a main competency, suggesting that the textbook has the potential for developing ICC, albeit constrained. The current scope and depth of cultural content in both textbooks, however, indicate an insufficient integration of intercultural components, suggesting a gap in aligning with ICC principles across diverse cultures.

The analysis in this section is organized around the comparison of four core components of ICC as defined by Byram (1997): knowledge, awareness, attitude and skills in the textbooks (Figure 1). Each category is assessed to determine the extent to which the textbooks promote these competencies among EFL/ESL learners.

The comparison between Network ESO 4 and Vision 1 reveals significant variations in their treatment of key ICC components. The data highlights different pedagogical priorities and approaches to incorporating cultural content within the two textbooks.

Vision 1 places the strongest emphasis on knowledge components, with 30% of its activities dedicated to this area, compared to 25% in Network ESO 4. When it comes to skills development, the disparity between the two textbooks is particularly striking. Network ESO 4 devotes 13% of its activities to skills, a substantial contrast to the mere 5% allocated by Vision 1. Cultural awareness is another area where Network ESO 4 significantly outperforms Vision 1, dedicating 9% of its activities to this component versus only 3% in Vision 1. Finally, attitude is the most underrepresented component in both textbooks. Network ESO 4 allocates 4% of its activities to attitude, whereas Vision 1 dedicates only 2%.

The overall patterns in the data reveal that Network ESO 4 takes a more well-rounded and integrative approach, balancing its attention across knowledge, skills, awareness and attitude components. In contrast, Vision 1 is heavily knowledge-focused, with a disproportionately large share of content devoted to this component. In conclusion, the data suggests that Network ESO 4 provides a more holistic educational experience by integrating various dimensions of cultural learning, while Vision 1 adopts a more focused, knowledge-driven approach.

The analysis of this section is structured around four core components of ICC, mentioned above, in relation to three cultural perspectives: source, target and international – following Cortazzi and Jin’s (1999) framework. Each category is examined to determine how well the textbooks foster these competencies among EFL/ESL learners.

In the analysis of Network ESO 4, Figure 2 illustrates a notable emphasis on knowledge, particularly with regard to international culture. Specifically, 16% of all activities in the textbook are oriented toward developing knowledge related to international cultures, suggesting a solid foundation in this area. The textbook demonstrates a moderate awareness of international culture, accounting for 6% of the content. Attitudinal aspects, however, are the least represented. The textbook shows only 1% coverage related to both source and target cultures and a mere 3% on international culture. Finally, skills development is addressed to a semi-moderate extent with the textbook activities. The representation of skills includes 9% of content devoted to international culture, 3% to source culture, and 2% to target culture.

In the analysis of Vision 1, Figure 2 reveals a significant emphasis on the knowledge component, particularly regarding source culture. Source culture knowledge constitutes 23% of the activities, whereas there is no representation (0%) of the target and only 1% for international cultures in this category. The awareness component exhibits a minimal presence, with only 3% of content focused on source culture and no representation of target or international cultures. The attitudinal component is similarly underrepresented. The activities include just 2% coverage for attitudes associated with source culture, with no representation of attitudes related to target or international cultures. Finally, skills development related to cultural aspects is minimally addressed: 5% of activities are oriented toward skills in source culture, with no activities devoted to either target or international cultures.

This study analyzed the representation of ICC in two EFL/ESL textbooks: Vision 1 (used in Iran) and Network ESO 4 (used in Spain), using Byram’s (1997) ICC model and Cortazzi and Jin’s (1999) cultural orientation framework. The analysis highlights divergent approaches to cultural representation, each shaped by the distinct educational priorities and sociocultural contexts of Iran and Spain. These differences are most apparent in the focus on source, target and international cultures within each textbook and how ICC components are integrated.

The treatment of ICC components further reflects the distinct cultural orientations in Vision 1 and Network ESO 4. In Vision 1, knowledge is focused on the source culture, emphasizing historical and cultural facts related to Iran. This content often centers around national heritage and values, such as respect for Islamic traditions and family roles aligned with Islamic-Iranian ideals. However, there is minimal attention to international or target cultural knowledge, which hinders the development of a balanced intercultural perspective. Similarly, attitudinal components, which are crucial for fostering openness and curiosity toward other cultures, are either absent or narrowly framed within the context of Islamic-Iranian values. This approach may unintentionally promote an ethnocentric viewpoint, as students are not encouraged to engage critically with cultural differences or explore alternative perspectives.

Network ESO 4, while more diverse in its inclusion of international cultures, shows a strong knowledge focus, often oriented toward target (British) culture. This knowledge is frequently factual rather than interpretive, lacking depth in exploring cultural values, practices or worldviews. As a result, students are exposed to a broad array of cultures. However, they are not encouraged to delve into the intricacies of these cultures or to reflect on how different cultural norms and values shape communication styles and behaviors. Although Network ESO 4 features some projects that encourage exploration of international cultures, such as creating a brochure on Australia, these tasks primarily promote surface-level engagement and fail to foster skills like interpreting, relating and interacting with cultural content.

The attitude component is critically underrepresented in both textbooks, with limited activities designed to cultivate openness or curiosity about other cultures. In Vision 1, attitudinal elements often reinforce Islamic-Iranian cultural norms without offering opportunities for students to question or explore alternative cultural practices. For example, elements such as belief in Allah (i.e. God), expressions of gratitude toward Allah and the recitation of the Quran are presented within the Islamic framework, which, while affirming local cultural identity, lack the intercultural perspective. Meanwhile, in Network ESO 4, while some tasks involve exploring international cultures, they often inadvertently reinforce stereotypes. For instance, an activity that invites students to speculate about a flood in Asia can reinforce preconceived notions rather than challenge students to think critically about complex global issues, such as socioeconomic inequalities and environmental challenges. Similarly, a reading passage on family ties in China unintentionally portrays a stereotypical image of underprivileged regions governed by strict laws, which could cement rather than dispel misconceptions about other cultures. By failing to engage students in critical reflection and inquiry, Network ESO 4 similarly misses opportunities to encourage an attitude of openness and readiness to engage with differing cultural perspectives.

In terms of skills, both textbooks lack activities that would help students develop practical intercultural skills, such as engaging in real-world intercultural interactions or managing misunderstandings effectively. Vision 1 contains some activities that promote collaboration within the Iranian context, like museum visits or environmental conservation, but these tasks do not extend beyond local cultural engagement. Similarly, Network ESO 4 includes tasks that involve basic research or information gathering, such as the project on Australia, but these activities fall short of fostering the interpretive and relational skills essential for effective intercultural communication.

Vision 1 places a predominant emphasis on Iranian culture, aligning closely with national values and Islamic-Iranian identity. This textbook consistently highlights local cultural symbols, figures and practices, such as Avicenna, the Persian Gulf, Imam Reza Holy Shrine and national wildlife like the Iranian cheetah. This heavy focus on source culture in Vision 1 suggests an educational priority toward promoting a strong national identity, rather than fostering intercultural awareness. As such, the textbook includes little to no reference to target or international cultures (e.g. the Nile River and Pyramids in Egypt), limiting opportunities for students to explore cultural diversity beyond Iran’s borders. This focus on source culture aligns with research by Gheitasi et al. (2020) and Morady Moghaddam and Tirnaz (2023), which found that the Vision series is heavily centered around Iranian identity and offers limited exposure to global perspectives. Consequently, students may be less prepared to engage in intercultural communication, as the textbook’s content does not challenge them to compare or contrast their cultural perspectives with others.

In contrast, Network ESO 4 adopts a more internationally oriented approach, incorporating references to various global cultures. This textbook includes activities featuring international locations such as Disneyland Park in Paris, environmental issues in South Korea and Sri Lanka, or cultural figures like Paul Stamets, an American mycologist. These elements introduce Spanish students to a diverse range of cultures and provide opportunities to engage with content beyond the local context. While this international orientation may broaden students’ cultural horizons, Network ESO 4 displays a slight bias toward the target culture, particularly British culture. Frequent references to British locations, institutions and individuals (e.g. the BBC, British inventors) signal an implicit prioritization of the target culture, consistent with findings by Vivas-Peraza (2023), who noted that Spanish EFL/ESL textbooks often overemphasize target cultures, particularly British. Although this orientation can benefit students by improving their familiarity with cultural contexts where English is spoken, the overrepresentation of British culture may inadvertently limit students’ exposure to the wider spectrum of international cultures.

Interestingly, Network ESO 4 largely overlooks its own source culture – Spanish culture – which is nearly absent from the textbook. This omission is particularly striking, as it deprives students of the opportunity to explore their own culture in relation to others, limiting their ability to relate to the material and engage with it on a personal level. As Cortazzi and Jin (1999) argue, an understanding of one’s own culture is fundamental to developing intercultural awareness, as it allows learners to contextualize and navigate cultural differences more effectively.

The analysis underscores that while Vision 1 and Network ESO 4 take different approaches to cultural representation, both fall short of fully promoting ICC. Vision 1’s focus on source culture and Islamic-Iranian values, potentially reinforces ethnocentrism. On the other hand, Network ESO 4’s international orientation, while more diverse, inadvertently overemphasizes British culture at the expense of both Spanish and non-English-speaking cultures. Both textbooks fail to fully incorporate critical ICC components (skills, attitudes and awareness) which are essential for preparing students to navigate intercultural interactions effectively. These findings highlight the need for EFL/ESL textbooks that not only integrate diverse cultural perspectives but also provide activities that actively engage students in exploring and reflecting on cultural differences.

Materials developers and teachers play essential roles in fostering ICC through thoughtful content design and classroom practices. To enhance ICC, materials developers should incorporate diverse cultural contexts, balancing source, target and international cultures. Textbooks could explore English-speaking cultures like India and Nigeria and include non-English-speaking ones. Activities should focus on deeper cultural values and communication styles, moving beyond surface-level facts. Role-plays, case studies and real-world intercultural tasks can build students’ interpretive and relational skills.

Teachers can enrich existing materials by integrating intercultural dimensions, such as comparing cultural approaches to historical figures or environmental challenges. Reflective discussions and multimedia resources showcasing diverse communication styles can foster empathy and cultural awareness. Collaborative projects and classroom cultural celebrations provide hands-on opportunities for intercultural engagement while respecting local norms.

By adopting these strategies, EFL/ESL materials and teaching practices can better support students in acquiring the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for effective intercultural communication and global citizenship.

The evaluation of Vision 1 and Network ESO 4 has highlighted a significant gap in the understanding and application of ICC among materials developers. The content analysis of these textbooks reveals that their developers have not fully embraced this concept. By focusing narrowly on national ideologies or English-speaking countries, these textbooks miss opportunities to provide learners with authentic intercultural experiences. This oversight is particularly impactful for Iranian learners, who have limited access to direct intercultural interactions and whose experiences are often confined to virtual spaces due to political constraints.

The challenge of developing EFL/ESL materials that genuinely incorporate intercultural content is substantial. Yet, it is also essential if we are to prepare learners to become competent intercultural speakers. Superficial cultural representations – through images or basic reading passages – are insufficient. Instead, the development of EFL/ESL textbooks requires a more profound commitment to embedding ICC components throughout, with an emphasis on fostering ICC knowledge, attitude, awareness, and skills. These elements are essential for helping language learners understand and appreciate different cultural perspectives and for equipping them with the tools needed for meaningful intercultural communication.

In today’s globalized and digitalized world, English serves as a Lingua Franca rather than merely a foreign/second language, underscoring the need for a genuine integration of ICC components into both local and international EFL/ESL textbooks. This raises fundamental questions:

In addition, without adhering to established ICC models, how effectively can these textbooks link learners’ knowledge and skills, enabling them to communicate across cultural boundaries? Addressing these questions requires a shift in the way we approach EFL/ESL education, emphasizing intercultural competent as a core objective.

Finally, this study is not without limitations. The analyzed textbooks represent only a portion of their respective curricula. Future research could extend this analysis by applying the developed checklist to other textbooks within these series to provide a more comprehensive understanding of ICC representation. Moreover, this study primarily relied on textbook content analysis. Collecting qualitative data from teachers and materials developers could offer deeper insights into how intercultural content is perceived, adapted and taught in practice. In addition, future research could expand the scope by incorporating a wider range of resources, such as teacher guides, supplementary materials and classroom interactions, to examine how ICC elements are reinforced beyond textbooks.