Easter Eggs and Scotch Whiskey: the role of religious self- identity on (in)congruent holiday promotions Open Access

Imagine a liquor store runs an Easter sale promotion. How might a devout Christian respond to this promotion? Easter, as a religious celebration, aligns with their beliefs, and thus, the promotion may foster favorable attitudes toward the store. In contrast, linking Easter to liquor could feel inconsistent with their values, possibly resulting in less favorable attitudes toward the store. In marketing, a diverse array of semiotic elements – visual, text, branding, product design and symbols – are strategically used to convey symbolic meaning (Lawes, 2023; Oswald, 2012; Trehan and Kalro, 2024). These elements may create conflicting or incongruous messages when misaligned with other aspects of a brand, product or consumer self-image (Eklund and Helmefalk, 2022; Halkias and Kokkinaki, 2014). Such misalignment is not uncommon. For instance, a dance troupe’s performance at the Paris 2024 Olympics Opening Ceremony closely resembled Da Vinci’s iconic painting of The Last Supper (which depicts Jesus Christ and his 12 apostles before his crucifixion), sparking global criticism from Christians, even though the troupe denied this inspiration.

Extensive research has examined how congruity or incongruity between products, events or spokespeople affect brand and product attitudes among consumers (Albert et al., 2017;Carrillat et al., 2013; Li et al., 2022; Roy and Cornwell, 2003; Santos et al., 2019; Shin et al., 2018; Wang, 2017; Woisetschläger and Manuel, 2012). However, little attention has been paid to how consumers respond to situations in which both congruent and incongruent information is presented. For example, Li et al. (2022) examined self-congruity or the degree of overlap between a person’s self-image and a brand’s personality and found that actual and ideal self-image congruities were both predictive of brand preference. Similarly, congruency in product design and advertising has been shown to enhance brand evaluations (Van Rompay et al., 2009). Conversely, self-identity incongruence with the brand leads consumers to avoid the brand (Mostert and Naude, 2022).

The only study to date that has combined both congruent and incongruent information is by Mazodier and Merunka (2012). Specifically, these authors examined self-congruity between the consumer and an event, as well as the fit between the event and the brand, concluding that these fit elements are important factors that influence consumer attitudes as well as affecting the brand. Their analysis, however, focuses on the main effects of these constructs in isolation, without addressing their interaction. Understanding the interaction between self-congruity and promotion-product congruence/incongruence offers additional value through revealing how these factors may amplify or mitigate each other’s impact. Such insights move beyond isolated effects to uncover the conditional relationships that drive consumer behavior, providing actionable understanding for promotional strategies.

The aim of this research is, therefore, to examine how the combination of congruent and incongruent marketing elements interacts to affect consumer perceptions, especially in the context of religious identity. It is proposed that perceptions of incongruity will increase when encountering these mixed elements, leading to more negative perceptions. More specifically, this research investigates whether mixing congruent and incongruent elements results in decreased self-continuity and subsequently lower consumer evaluations, seeking to provide evidence of the nuanced dynamics between brand and product elements that simultaneously align and misalign with consumers’ religious identity.

Congruity refers to the perceived fit or relevance between two or more marketing elements, such as a product and its brand, an event and its sponsor or a retail environment and product category (Eklund and Helmefalk, 2022, p. 606). Extensive research demonstrates that congruity positively influences consumer responses, including attitudes, purchase intentions, brand loyalty and willingness to pay (Sirgy et al., 1991; Quester et al., 2000).

At the product level, brand–product fit has been shown to significantly shape consumer evaluations of brand extensions. Strong congruity enables the transfer of positive associations – such as perceived quality – from the parent brand to the new product, enhancing acceptance and reducing consumer skepticism (Aaker and Keller, 1990). Conversely, weak congruity can create confusion and undermine brand credibility. For example, a food brand extending into an unrelated category like technology may be perceived as inauthentic or mismatched, resulting in diminished trust.

The importance of congruity extends to marketing communication strategies. Aligning product attributes with congruent advertising appeals enhances the effectiveness of messaging by reinforcing consumer expectations, leading to more favorable brand attitudes and stronger purchase intentions (Seo et al., 2024). Contextual congruity, that is, the match between product placement and setting, can also impact actual consumer behavior.

For instance, congruent product placement has been shown to increase purchase likelihood, even when visual attention is lower (Steinmann et al., 2021).

Congruity also plays a role beyond promotional strategies, shaping both pre- and post-purchase evaluations. Sponsor–product fit, for instance, has been identified as a strong predictor of consumers’ willingness to pay or donate in sponsorship contexts (Santos et al., 2019). These findings collectively highlight that congruity, whether contextual, perceptual or symbolic, serves as a critical mechanism through which consumers form judgments and make decisions.

This alignment not only enhances favorable attitudes toward the brand and advertisement but also increases purchase intentions. In general, higher levels of congruity result in more favorable attitudes and stronger patronage intentions, whereas incongruity tends to lead to more negative evaluations.

Self-congruity theory adds another dimension, focusing on how consumers seek coherence between their self-identity and external stimuli, such as the image or values projected by a product, brand or store (Rojas-Méndez et al., 2015; Shin et al., 2018). A mismatch between actions, beliefs and self-image often induces psychological discomfort (Baumeister and Leary, 1995; Fens et al., 2022). Consequently, congruent cues can foster favorable evaluations and loyalty, as evidenced by studies like Mazodier and Merunka (2012) and Shin et al. (2018), which show that self-congruity with events and sponsoring brands enhances both attitudes and patronage

Overall, the evidence suggests that congruity between various marketing elements yields more positive outcomes. In the context of the current study, it is, therefore, hypothesized that Easter products paired with an Easter promotional sale will result in stronger store patronage intentions compared to non-Easter products presented with the same Easter promotional sale. Stated formally:

Self-identity encompasses an individual’s self-concepts, identities and schemas, which collectively shape their sense of self (Kettle and Häubl, 2011; Markus, 1977). Prior research suggests that individuals are more likely to select and develop positive attitudes toward an object when it is perceived as consistent with their self-identity (Janssen et al., 2017; Osgood and Tannenbaum, 1955; Sirgy, 1982, 1985; Van Quaquebeke et al., 2019). This alignment reflects how consumers match their values with products, underscoring the strong link between consumption and self-definition.

Religious identity constitutes a crucial aspect of self-identity, significantly influencing consumer behavior (Casidy et al., 2024; Casidy and Arli, 2018; Gupta et al., 2023). For many individuals, religion is deeply intertwined with marketplace preferences, including products, brands, events and even tourist destinations, serving as a vehicle for expressing and affirming self-concept (Ananda et al., 2024; Arli et al., 2025). Religion not only guides evaluations and responses to promotional appeals but also functions as a vehicle through which individuals express, affirm and potentially transform their self-concept.

The depth of religious commitment also informs behavioral patterns, influencing actions in accordance with religious role expectations and reinforcing one’s identity (Weaver and Agle, 2002; Nguyen et al., 2020). Notably, not all religious consumers respond uniformly. For example, in the context of spiritual branding mishaps, such as the Paris Olympics 2024 controversy, Christians exhibit varied reactions depending on the strength of their religious conviction. Individuals with strong religious identities tend to be more evaluative of marketing content that aligns or conflicts with their beliefs, while those with lower religious commitment display reduced sensitivity (Allport and Ross, 1967; Duman and Ozgen, 2018).

Religious consumers form a typology – non-religious, religious, self-transformation and self-categorization – differing in levels of materialism, brand preferences, religious product consumption and charitable giving (Nguyen et al., 2020). Religious identity, thus, manifests heterogeneously in the marketplace, with religious identity strength moderating how individuals interpret and respond to marketing elements. Empirical research supports this perspective. Studies have shown that Islamic and Christian symbols can enhance consumer attitudes toward advertisements (Henley et al., 2009; Ustaahmetoğlu, 2020) and boost purchase intentions (La Ferle et al., 2022;Taylor et al., 2010; Taylor and Minton, 2021).

The present research is related to, but conceptually distinct from research on brand alliances in several key ways. A brand alliance typically refers to situations in which “two or more brand names are presented jointly to the consumer” (Rao et al., 1999, p. 259). While brand alliance research has primarily focused on the congruity between two brands (Simonin and Ruth, 1998; Su and Kunkel, 2019), some studies have extended this to cause–brand alliances, assessing the fit between a brand and a social cause (Lafferty and Goldsmith, 2005). Conversely, the present study examines the interaction between consumers’ identities, product types and promotional elements within the context of a single brand.

Similar to much of the congruity literature, research on brand alliances most often focuses on the main effects of congruence and incongruence, with limited attention to how multiple congruent and incongruent elements interact simultaneously. For example, Simonin and Ruth (1998) and Newmeyer et al. (2018) both observe that consumers frequently evaluate alliances based on overall fit, but few studies have examined more complex, multi-dimensional configurations. In contrast, the current study investigates how consumer attitudes are shaped by the interplay of marketing elements such as product, promotional messaging and display that are simultaneously congruent and incongruent.

Building on prior research (Alhouti et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2022; Minton and Kahle, 2016), this study proposes that religious identity strength moderates consumer reactions to congruent and incongruent marketing elements. Specifically, individuals with strong religious identities are more attuned to symbolic religious cues (e.g. store displays, events and endorsers) and respond favorably when these align with their beliefs. However, when such cues conflict with other brand attributes, such as the product itself, negative evaluations may result despite the congruency between religious identity and the promotional campaign. In other words, this study suggests that Easter holiday promotions that align with a consumer’s religious identity typically evoke positive responses. However, such alignment may backfire when associated with incongruent products on sale, resulting in negative evaluations of the brand or store. These effects are expected to be particularly pronounced among individuals with a strong religious identity.

Based on this theorizing:

Self-continuity refers to the perceived connectedness and consistency between an individual’s present self and their past or future self (Escalas, 2013; Liu et al., 2018; Vignoles et al., 2008; Sedikides et al., 2023). Individuals are generally motivated to preserve self-continuity and seek opportunities, contexts or products that support this sense of connectedness (Vignoles et al., 2008; Sedikides et al., 2023). For example, nostalgic, past-focused advertisements, compared to present-focused ones, have been shown to enhance perceived self-continuity, which in turn leads to more favorable brand evaluations and increased purchase intentions (Ju et al., 2016), as well as more positive evaluations of products and social causes (Zhang and Aggarwal, 2015). Specifically, the extent to which consumers value a target is influenced by their sense of continuity with their past or imagined future selves. These findings align with broader research highlighting the role of self-continuity in shaping future goals and affirming identity; it is central to the construction of one’s core self-concept (Escalas and Bettman, 2005; Ji et al., 2019; Sedikides et al., 2015; White et al., 2012).

Religious identity is central to many individuals and significantly shapes how they perceive their overall self-concept. It also plays a substantial role in shaping consumer behavior (Alhouti et al., 2015; Minton and Kahle, 2016; Sirgy, 2015). When religious identity is salient, individuals strive to maintain a coherent and consistent self, exhibiting behaviors, including consumption choices, that align with their values. Building on this premise, the present research proposes that perceived incongruity between a store or brand and its associated products can disrupt self-continuity. As a result, consumers may evaluate the brand or store less favorably, or disengage from it entirely, if they perceive it as undermining their sense of self-continuity. Formally stated, the following hypothesis is proposed:

The proposed hypotheses were tested across two experimental studies (see Figure 1 for the conceptual model). A pre-test was conducted before the main studies to assess the efficacy and suitability of the stimuli used. Study 1 tested and found support for H1, H2a and H2b, demonstrating that product types congruent with promotional display elements led to stronger store patronage intentions. It also showed that the strength of religious identity moderated these effects. Study 2 extended the findings of Study 1 by examining the underlying psychological mechanism of self-continuity (H3) and provided further evidence for the predicted three-way interaction (H1, H2a and H2b).

To establish whether the selected products were perceived as congruent or incongruent with the religious event, a pre-test was conducted. A range of products assumed to be either congruent or incongruent with Easter was selected for this purpose. These included a chocolate bunny, Easter eggs, condoms and whiskey. Easter was chosen as the context for this study, as it is a widely recognized religious occasion familiar to a significant portion of the population (e.g. Christians). Approximately 65% of the US population, where this research was conducted, identify as Christian, as do about 31% of individuals globally (Pew Research Center, 2021).

Participants were 48 Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) workers (Mage = 35.74; 54% female) who completed the survey in exchange for compensation. Consistent with recommendations for pre-test research, a minimum of 30 participants is considered adequate for preliminary testing (Perneger et al., 2015). MTurk is an online crowdsourcing platform developed by Amazon that enables tasks to be outsourced to “workers” in exchange for payment. It offers a diverse participant pool and has been shown to produce data comparable in quality to traditional methods, including laboratory studies (Buhrmester et al., 2011; Goodman et al., 2013).

Although concerns have been raised regarding participant engagement on MTurk, this study addressed this issue by selecting workers with high approval ratings and incorporating attention checks to ensure data quality. Compensation was aligned with recommended ethical standards to encourage reliable and attentive responses. This study received ethical approval from the University Human Research Ethics Committee.

Participants were shown 17 images depicting items either associated or not associated with Easter (e.g. chocolate bunnies, Easter eggs, a cross, a statue of Jesus, a balloon, whiskey, tobacco, condoms and steak). They were then asked to rate their level of agreement with three statements assessing the extent to which each item was associated with Easter. The statements were: “I associate this picture with Easter,” “I think the object is related to Easter” and “I think people would think about Easter if they saw this object.” Each participant responded to all three statements for each of the 17 images. After completing the image evaluations, participants filled out a brief demographic survey, which included questions about age, gender and religious affiliation.

A repeated measure ANOVA was conducted to assess differences in congruency with Easter across the 17 products. The analysis revealed a significant effect, F(16,31) = 151.53 and p < 0.001. Post hoc comparisons indicated that the chocolate bunnies (M = 6.42 and SD = 1.08) and Easter eggs (M = 6.01 and SD = 1.24) were rated as the most congruent with the Easter promotion. In contrast, condoms (M = 1.23 and SD = 0.83) and whiskey (M = 1.34 and SD = 0.94) were perceived as the most incongruent. The two congruent products significantly differed from the two incongruent items (all p’s < 0.001).

For subsequent studies, chocolate bunnies and Easter eggs were used as the Easter (congruent) products, while whiskey and condoms represented the non-Easter (incongruent) products. Including two products in each category helped control for item-specific idiosyncratic effects.

In all, 200 MTurk participants (46% Women, M_age = 32.33 and SD = 12.25) were recruited. In all, eight participants who identified themselves as Jewish, Buddhist, Muslim, Wiccan and Pagan were excluded, as were four participants who failed an attention check, resulting in a final sample of 188 participants. Participants were randomly assigned to a 2 (Promotional Display: Easter vs Special) × 2 (Product Type: Easter vs non-Easter) × Continuous (Religious Identity) between-subjects design (see Supplementary Appendix A for the promotional sale condition stimuli used).

As noted, two different products were used for each condition (Easter-congruent and non-Easter). No significant differences were observed between the two Easter products [F(1,93) = 0.004 and p = 0.95] or between the two non-Easter products [F(1,93) = 0.33 and p = 0.57] in relation to patronage intentions. Additionally, there were no significant interaction effects with religious identity (within a product type; all p’s > 0.45). Therefore, products were grouped into Easter versus non-Easter categories for analysis.

Participants were informed that the study aimed to assess their patronage intentions toward a business. In the promotional display condition, they viewed a shop front with either a “Happy Easter Sale” sign (Easter condition) or a “Special Sale” sign (control condition). They were then asked to imagine encountering the store display and shown one of four products: either an Easter-congruent product (Easter egg or chocolate bunny) or a non-Easter product (condoms or whiskey).

Participants then completed the dependent measure, patronage intentions, using a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree) adapted from Sweeney and Soutar (2001). An example item included, “The likelihood of purchasing products from this store is very high” (α = 0.915). See Supplementary Appendix B for the full list of items.

Next, participants rated their level of religious belief using an eight-item religious identity scale adapted from Vitell et al. (2007). Sample items included: “I believe in God,” “I attend church services” and “I give time to the church,” rated on a seven-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree, M = 3.48, SD = 1.95 and α = 0.955).

Finally, participants responded to an attention check (“Which product among those listed below was on a special sale?”) and answered demographic questions, including their religious affiliation. They were then thanked and given a code to receive compensation.

An ANOVA was conducted to test the interaction between promotional display and product type on patronage intentions, providing evidence for H1. Consistent with H1, the analysis revealed a significant interaction, F(1,187) = 8.37 and p = 0.004 (see Supplementary Appendix C for a summary of descriptive statistics for Studies 1 and 2).

Unpacking the interaction, patronage intentions were significantly higher when the Easter promotional display was paired with the Easter congruent products (i.e. Easter egg and chocolate bunny; M = 4.10 and SD = 1.43), compared to when it was paired with the non-Easter products (i.e. whiskey and condoms; M = 3.49, SD = 1.34 and p = 0.039).

Conversely, the opposite pattern emerged in the Special Sale display condition. Patronage intentions were lower when the Special Sale was paired with an Easter-congruent product (i.e. Easter egg or chocolate bunny; M = 3.64 and SD = 1.50) compared to when it was paired with a non-Easter product (i.e. whiskey or condoms; M = 4.24, SD = 1.61 and p = 0.046). There was no main effect of product type, F(1,187) = 0.001 and p = 0.98, or of promotional display type, F(1,187) = 0.43 and p = 0.52. These results provide clear support for H1, demonstrating that when product types are congruent with promotional display elements, consumers report significantly stronger store patronage intentions compared to when the display elements and product types are incongruent.

Next, an ANOVA was conducted to test the moderating role of religious identity. Specifically, H2 proposes that religious identity strength will interact with promotional display and product types, such that individuals with higher religious identity strength will report stronger patronage intentions when presented with congruent product types during the Easter Sale (H2a) and lower patronage intentions when presented with incongruent product types under the same Easter Sale condition (H2b). As predicted, a significant three-way interaction emerged, F(1, 187) = 4.12 and p = 0.04.

The three-way interaction was then explored using a spotlight analysis via PROCESS Model 3 (Hayes, 2017), examining effects at ±1 SD of religious identity (see Figure 2 for a graphical representation). Consistent with H2, there was no significant interaction between promotional display and product type for individuals low in religious identity (b = 0.32 and p = 0.59). However, a strong and significant interaction emerged for individuals high in religious identity (b = 2.04 and p < 0.001; Figure 2).

The interaction revealed that among highly religious participants, patronage intentions were higher when Easter-congruent products were paired with the Easter promotional display compared to the Special Sale condition (b = 0.87 and p = 0.07). Conversely, patronage intentions were significantly lower when non-Easter products (whiskey and condoms) were paired with the Easter Sale compared to the Special Sale (b = −1.17 and p = 0.002). These findings provide clear support for both H2a and H2b, highlighting the moderating effect of religious identity on consumer responses to congruent and incongruent promotional contexts (see Supplementary Appendix E for the horizontal bar chart comparing mean values of product-specific patronage intentions).

Also consistent with our theorizing, religious identity predicted patronage intentions when the Easter Sale featured Easter-congruent products (chocolate bunny and Easter egg; b = 0.197 and p = 0.074).

The purpose of Study 2 was to examine the mediating role of self-continuity. Specifically, this study predicted that self-continuity would mediate the interactive effect of religious identity, promotional display and product type on patronage intentions.

In all, 200 participants were recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk). Of them, ten participants who identified as Jewish, Buddhist, Muslim, Wiccan or Pagan were excluded from the analysis. In addition, 20 participants who failed the attention checks were removed. The final sample consisted of 170 participants (45.3% female, M_age = 35.67 and SD = 12.94).

Participants were randomly assigned to a 2 (Promotional Display: Easter vs Special) × 2 (Product Type: Easter vs non-Easter) × Continuous (Religious Identity) design. As in Study 1, Study 2 used two different products for the Easter condition and two for the non-Easter condition. There were no significant differences between the two Easter products, F(1, 85) = 0.03 and p = 0.86, or between the two non-Easter products, F(1, 93) = 0.06 and p = 0.81. Additionally, no significant interactions with religious identity were observed (all p’s > 0.25). As a result, product items were aggregated within Easter and non-Easter conditions for analysis.

The design of Study 2 was identical to that of Study 1, with one notable exception. Before answering the patronage intention questions, participants in both conditions rated their level of agreement with the focal mediator: self-continuity in the context of religious self-identity. Self-continuity was measured using a seven-point scale (1 = strongly agree and 7 = strongly disagree), with three items adapted from Sedikides et al. (2015) (e.g. “Shopping in this shop makes me feel connected with my religion”; α = 0.83).

Following this, participants completed the patronage intention items, the religious identity scale (M = 3.48, SD = 2.00 and α = 0.99), an attention check and demographic questions. Finally, participants were thanked and provided with a code to claim a small payment for their participation.

PROCESS (Model 3; Hayes, 2017) was used to examine the effect of congruent product types and promotional display (H1) and the moderating effect of religious identity strength (H2) on patronage intentions. The analysis revealed a significant interaction between promotional display and product type (b = −0.93, SE = 0.39 and p = 0.018), supporting H1. Similarly, consistent with Study 1, Study 2 provided further evidence in support of H2a and H2b; this effect was moderated by religious identity (b = 0.49 and p = 048). Exploring the three-way interaction (± 1 SD of religious identity; Figure 3) revealed no interaction between the promotional display and product type conditions for those low in religious identity (b = −0.28 and p = 0.689), but there was an interaction for those high in religious identity (b = 1.687 and p = 0.016). Examining those high in religious identity, patronage intentions were greater when Easter products were paired with the Easter Sale (compared to the Special sale; b = 0.87 and p = 0.058), while lower when the non-Easter products (whiskey and condoms) were paired with the Easter Sale (compared to the Special Sale; b = −0.88 and p = 0.091) (see Supplementary Appendix F for the horizontal bar chart comparing mean values of product-specific patronage intentions).

Next, PROCESS (Model 12; Hayes, 2017) was used to examine the mediating effect of self-continuity to test H3. First, consistent with the pattern of interaction on patronage intentions, the analysis revealed a significant interaction between promotional display and product type on self-continuity (b = −0.909 and p = 0.007), which was further moderated by religious identity (b = 0.46 and p = 0.029). Consistent with the hypothesis, there was a significant index of moderated mediation [b = 0.43, SE = 0.20 and 95% CI: (0.027, 0.827)]. Specifically, the results demonstrated that self-continuity mediated the effect of congruent promotional display and product type on patronization intentions but only for those with high religious identity [b = 1.87, SE = 0.67 and 95% CI: (0.543, 3.20)], whereas self-continuity did not mediate the effect for those with low religious identity [b = −0.185, SE = 0.56 and 95% CI: (−1.31, 0.925)]. Please see Supplementary Appendix D for the conditional means and standard deviations.

This study, therefore, not only provided further support for H1, H2a and H2b but also evidence for self-continuity as a mediating mechanism (H3). Specifically, the indirect effect on patronage intentions via self-continuity emerged only when participants with high religious identity were exposed to a condition featuring Easter-congruent products. This highlights self-continuity as a key psychological mechanism through which congruent and incongruent marketing elements influence behavior.

This research investigated the interaction between identity strength, specifically religious identity, the presence of religious promotional displays and the congruence of product type with a religious holiday promotion. In the context of consumer behavior, this study examined how congruent and incongruent marketing elements that align with or contradict a consumer’s self-identity influence their consumption choices.

Exploring congruence and incongruence offers a nuanced understanding of the role religious identity plays in shaping consumer decision-making. When consumers were exposed to marketing elements that aligned with one aspect of their identity but conflicted with another, they exhibited a reduced willingness to patronize the store. For instance, when a product incongruent with Easter (e.g. whiskey or condoms) was paired with an Easter promotional display – a context typically congruent with participants’ religious identity – patronage intentions declined.

Importantly, these effects were primarily observed among individuals with strong religious identities. Those with weaker religious identities not only displayed attenuated effects but also showed no statistically significant differences. This suggests that the negative response was not solely because of the incongruity between the product and the promotion, but rather how this incongruity interacted with the individual’s identity. Furthermore, self-continuity emerged as a mediating factor, indicating that the motivation to maintain consistency between personal identity and brand affiliation drives differences in patronage behavior that extend beyond mere transactional considerations (Fournier, 1998; Mazodier and Merunka, 2012).

Collectively, these findings highlight that when religious holiday promotional messaging is used, the congruence between product type and promotion becomes particularly crucial for highly religious consumers. The individuals in the current study were more inclined to support the store when the product aligned with the religious holiday, reflecting a clear preference for brands that resonate with their belief systems. Conversely, they were less likely to patronize the store when promotional messaging conflicted with the product offering, highlighting the potential for backlash.

The findings reveal that the impact of brand identity association on patronage intention is not uniform. Rather, it depends on the strength of an individual’s religious beliefs and the congruence between the store’s product offerings and the specific holiday promotions. This nuanced relationship highlights that the effectiveness of brand messaging varies significantly based on the alignment of promotional elements with consumer values (Aaker et al., 2001; Sirgy et al., 2008; Shin et al., 2018).

The findings extend congruency theory (Osgood, 1960) by demonstrating that the impacts of congruency cannot be fully understood by only examining the effects of congruency between two marketing elements (e.g. brand–sponsorship fit, Pappu and Cornwell, 2014; brand–event fit, Woisetschläger and Manuel, 2012; or the congruency of identity with a single marketing element, e.g. self-brand fit, Mazodier and Merunka, 2012; or self-celebrity, Dwivedi et al., 2015). Rather, they necessitate a more nuanced understanding of how consumers navigate inconsistencies between their identity and multiple marketing elements. Indeed, the findings demonstrate that this navigation is influenced by the strength of an individual’s religious beliefs and the alignment between the store’s product offerings and specific holiday promotions. These findings build upon prior research, suggesting that consumers prefer brands, stores or events that match their self-concept. However, this preference is also shaped by situational factors, such as product associations and the context of religious events (Aaker et al., 2001; Sirgy et al., 2008; Shin et al., 2018).

This study also enhances the broader understanding of how religion embedded in cultural and social systems (Rodner and Preece, 2019; Mathras et al., 2016) influences consumer behavior. Prior research identifies four key mechanisms through which religion impacts behavior: beliefs, rituals, values and community. These effects are particularly pronounced in societies where religion plays a central cultural role (Mathras et al., 2016; Minton and Kahle, 2016). For example, devout Christians attend Sunday church services and participate in social events with fellow church members (Rodner and Preece, 2019). These gatherings fulfil members’ need for belonging (Cohen, 2009). This study is, therefore, relevant for understanding how cultural and social systems, along with religious identity, shape brand perceptions and consumer behaviors.

Finally, the role identified for self-continuity as a mediator provides new insights. While prior research has investigated self-continuity in nostalgic contexts (Sedikides et al., 2015; Sedikides et al., 2023; Vignoles et al., 2008; Ji et al., 2019), this study distinctly explored religious self-continuity as a mechanism affecting brand or store-related choices. Specifically, religious self-continuity – the perceived connectedness and consistency between an individual’s present and past religious selves – is revealed as the psychological mechanism linking religious self-identity and consumer decision-making. The research, thus, expands self-congruity theory into the religious domain, demonstrating how stable perceptions of religious identity influence marketplace preferences.

The insights from this study provide valuable managerial implications for marketers aiming to refine their strategies in an increasingly complex and diverse marketplace. The findings highlight the necessity of contextually relevant marketing that aligns with the activated self-concepts of consumers. Managers should take into account situational triggers, such as religious holidays or cultural events, that activate specific aspects of consumers’ identities, then tailor their marketing messages accordingly (Leigh and Gabel, 1992). This approach involves adjusting advertising content, product recommendations and promotional materials to reflect themes and values that resonate with consumers during these periods.

The following examples illustrate the backfire effects that can occur when marketing is not contextually relevant. A pizza restaurant chain in Japan faced significant criticism for using live reindeer to deliver pizzas during Christmas, as this activity clashed with the tradition of Santa delivering gifts for children, making pizza a mismatch for the occasion of giving (Fuhrmeister, 2016). Similarly, Buddha Bar has succeeded in regions with few Buddhists but faced protests and forced closures in areas with significant Buddhist populations (Brown, 2024). These examples underscore the need for marketers to ensure their strategies respect religious symbols and holiday messaging, avoiding practices that may appear exploitative or disrespectful (Leigh and Gabel, 1992).

The current research reinforces the need for religious and cultural sensitivity, especially when marketing incorporates multiple signs or symbols that may carry meanings incongruent with each other (Islam et al., 2019; Onkvisit and Shaw, 1987). This is particularly important, as religion is often intertwined in cultures (Ananda et al., 2024; Gupta et al., 2023). Managers should invest in understanding their target markets’ cultural and religious landscapes to avoid unintentional offence and potential brand-related adverse outcomes (Mathras et al., 2016). It may be necessary to consult cultural experts or conduct in-depth market research to inform marketing strategies that are respectful and inclusive. One might wonder what a store that sells whiskey and other alcohol should do during Easter? The findings indicate that while having an Easter sale for non-Easter items (e.g. whiskey) resulted in negative patronage intentions, particularly among customers with a strong Christian religious identity, a special sale had no negative impact, even among those religious customers. In this case, avoiding culturally insensitive associations simply involves not explicitly linking alcohol with the incongruent (“Easter”) promotion. On the other hand, marketers wishing to use a religious promotion need to be particularly careful, as even if the religious promotion is congruent with their customer base, the presence of any incongruent elements will likely lead to a backfire effect.

Ultimately, understanding the complex interaction between religious identity and various marketing elements, as well as their congruence (or incongruence), offers marketers a sophisticated toolkit for crafting strategies that yield more personalized, impactful and culturally sensitive messages. By embracing these insights, brands can cultivate deeper connections with their audiences.

This study presents several theoretical and methodological limitations that offer directions for future research. First, the exclusive focus on Easter and Christianity restricts the generalizability of the findings across other religious identities and traditions. Broader insights into religious identity and consumer behavior could be obtained by expanding studies to encompass a diverse range of religious and cultural contexts.

Second, the product selection – Easter eggs and chocolate bunnies as congruent items and whiskey and condoms as incongruent items – may have introduced variance in perceived value and consumer engagement. Chocolates are typically considered low-value, low-engagement products, whereas whiskey and condoms may be viewed as higher-value or higher-engagement items. Future studies should consider using products of comparable value and engagement to isolate the effects of product congruence more accurately.

Relatedly, as an unexpected finding in Study 1, a positive correlation existed between Christian religious identity and a preference for whiskey and condoms in the Special Sale condition (b = 0.20 and p = 0.048). This latter effect was significantly different from when these products were paired with the Easter Sale, suggesting that, at least in this sample, more religious participants were more likely to support non-Easter products – namely, “whiskey and condoms” – during the Special Sale. This may seem counterintuitive, given religious objections to birth control and alcohol consumption. However, public opinion data indicates a high moral acceptance of both: 92% of Americans, including most Catholics and conservatives, approve of birth control and 79% approve of alcohol consumption (Brenan, 2019; Frank, 2015; Newport, 2012). Given the weak effect and the lack of replication in Study 2, this likely reflects a Type I error, although future research could investigate further. Importantly, the absence of a negative effect provides additional support for the study’s hypothesis, namely, that adverse reactions were because of not solely the products themselves but rather the interaction between religious identity, product type and religious promotional context.

The timing of data collection may also have influenced the results. The two studies were conducted approximately one and two months after Easter. Conducting the research closer to the holiday might have heightened religious salience or expectations among participants, potentially amplifying the observed effects. While this timing is unlikely to pose a practical concern for managers – as most Easter promotions would logically occur near Easter – it remains an important consideration for researchers. Future studies should examine temporal effects and explore whether the impact of brand identity association varies across different times of the year.

Another limitation of the study is that both the mediator (self-continuity) and the dependent variable (patronage intentions) were measured in Study 2, raising concerns about temporal precedence and potential alternative explanations. To address this, future research could adopt longitudinal designs or implement manipulation-of-mediator techniques to strengthen causal inference. In addition, this study used self-reported measures to assess participants’ behavioral intentions. Future research could conduct a triangulation study using behavioral data, such as actual purchase records, clickstream data or eye-tracking during exposure to promotional materials. These objective measures would enable cross-validation of self-reported intentions and attitudes with real-world behaviors.

In terms of future directions, the interplay of congruent and incongruent marketing elements explored here likely extends to other domains, such as health and sustainability marketing. For instance, a health-conscious consumer may experience dissonance if a celebrity who advocates for healthy living endorses an unhealthy product. This incongruence could undermine self-continuity and decrease brand trust. Similarly, brands promoting environmental sustainability may face backlash if consumers discover environmentally harmful practices, resulting in a conflict between a consumer’s environmental self-concept and the brand’s image.

Comparable dynamics have been observed in political marketing, where brands aligning with incongruent political causes risk appearing inauthentic, which can negatively affect consumer perceptions (Weber et al., 2021). Future research could explore how the interaction of congruent and incongruent elements further moderates consumer responses across various identity domains.

Overall, these examples highlight the complex challenges that consumers encounter when reconciling brand images with their self-concepts, especially in the presence of inconsistencies. This dynamic holds significant implications for brand authenticity and the importance of consistent, values-based messaging – an area that warrants deeper exploration.

The supplementary material for this article can be found online.