Wow! you’re so cool! Does anthropomorphism affect brand coolness perceptions? Open Access

Brand coolness (BC) has emerged as a vital success factor and powerful differentiator in recent studies (Koskie and Locander, 2023; Tiwari and Murthy, 2025). Firms like GoPro, PlayStation, Nike and Netflix have excelled by imparting coolness to brands and products (Warren et al., 2019). BC has significantly enhanced customers’ willingness to co-create brand value (Zhang et al., 2024), promoting desirability (Loureiro et al., 2020), product adoption (Kim and Park, 2019;), emotional engagement (Koskie and Locander, 2023), word-of-mouth (Khoi and Le, 2022), loyalty (Loureiro et al., 2024; Warren et al., 2019) and brand love (Tiwari et al., 2021). For instance, Tesla’s successful deployment of a “cool” image among younger demographics (He et al., 2021) contributed to its ascension as the world’s highest-valued carmaker (Isidore, 2021). This evidence underlines the potent cultural capital and influence of coolness in the brand’s evolution.

Coolness’s rising prominence has intrigued scholars and practitioners, encouraging interdisciplinary studies from sociology, psychology, anthropology, marketing, technology, philosophy and history (Rahman, 2013). Its application and potency have been investigated in domains like tourism (Khoi and Le, 2022), technology (Tiwari et al., 2021), culture (Rahman, 2013), behaviour (Raptis et al., 2017), personality (Dar-Nimrod et al., 2018), products (Sundar et al., 2014), brands (Loureiro et al., 2020) and sports (Tiwari and Murthy, 2025). These studies focussed on coolness’s origin and characteristics (Rahman, 2013; Jiménez-Barreto et al., 2022) and its subjective nature and positive valence (Dar-Nimrod et al., 2018).

Despite extensive research on coolness’s impact on consumer behaviour, a critical gap exists in understanding its development ways and means. While the literature has established that coolness originates from human personality (Pountain and Robins, 2000), the role of anthropomorphism – brands’ ability to be perceived as human-like – remains unexplored as a potential antecedent to BC. This gap is particularly significant given multiple scholars’ calls for research into BC antecedents (Loureiro et al., 2020; Tiwari et al., 2021; Jiménez-Barreto et al., 2022).

Extant literature has demonstrated anthropomorphism’s profound impact on consumer-brand relationships and brand evaluations (Aggarwal and McGill, 2007). When brands activate human schemas through anthropomorphisation, they trigger deeper psychological connections (Puzakova et al., 2009), which may explain why brands with strong anthropomorphic elements – such as Jordan (humanised name), Snapchat (human-like ghost) and Nike (goddess-inspired swoosh) – consistently rank among the “coolest” brands globally (yplus.com, 2022). This effectiveness stems from anthropomorphic brands’ ability to communicate symbolic meanings (Epley et al., 2007) and reduces the psychological distance between consumers and brands (Guido and Peluso, 2015), enabling consumers to express their aspirational selves through these brands (Belk et al., 2010). The concept of coolness itself originates from human personality attributes (Pountain and Robins, 2000), suggesting that brands can cultivate coolness through anthropomorphic elements that foster stronger consumer connections (Heine et al., 2018). For instance, Harley-Davidson embodies this through its anthropomorphic design, which expresses rebellious traits and enhances its BC (Tiwari et al., 2021).

While the above discussion suggests that BA influences coolness formation, this relationship remains theoretically and empirically unexplored in the extant literature. This represents a significant gap in our understanding of BA and coolness-formation mechanisms. Therefore, this study proposes to investigate BA’s impact on coolness perception. Specifically, this study addresses the following research questions:

For this study, we conducted a comprehensive empirical investigation using structural equation modelling (SEM) with data collected from 583 Indian millennial consumers through an online survey. This demographic is particularly relevant given India’s position as one of the world’s largest consumer markets and millennials’ significant influence on contemporary brand perceptions of coolness (Muralidharan and Xue, 2016; Purani et al., 2019).

By investigating this relationship, our research makes several important contributions. First, we extend the BC literature by identifying and validating anthropomorphism as a key antecedent, addressing a critical gap in understanding coolness formation mechanisms. Second, we advance anthropomorphism theory by demonstrating its application in coolness perception, extending previous work on brand anthropomorphisation. Third, we provide managers with actionable insights into how anthropomorphic brand elements can be strategically deployed to enhance BC.

The conceptualisation of BC has undergone significant evolution since its inception, shaped by shifts in consumer culture (Pountain and Robins, 2000). The construct gained relevance through its commercial adoption during the 1960s counterculture movement (Belk et al., 2010). Subsequent decades saw its systematic incorporation into youth marketing strategies and mainstream marketing strategies. Extant literature on BC reveals conceptual pluralism, ranging from hipness (Pountain and Robins, 2000), rebellious and social approval (Danesi, 1994) to extraordinary, high status (Dar-Nimrod et al., 2018) and glamorous appeal (Warren et al., 2019). This multiplicity coalesces in Warren and Campbell’s (2014) definition as “a subjective and dynamic, socially constructed positive trait attributed to cultural objects inferred to be appropriately autonomous.”

Five fundamental characteristics underpin existing understandings of BC. First, its inherent subjectivity ensures that evaluations vary across individuals and contexts (Belk et al., 2010; Pountain and Robins, 2000). Second, the socially constructed nature dictates that coolness emerges through collective interpretation rather than intrinsic brand properties (Gurrieri, 2009). Third, temporal fluidity renders cool status ephemeral, subject to constant cultural re-evaluation (Danesi, 1994). Fourth, while exhibiting positive valence (Warren and Campbell, 2014), coolness transcends mere desirability through cultural legitimacy (Frank, 1997). Fifth, its autonomy manifests through nonconformist brand behaviours that challenge conventional norms (Bruun et al., 2016; Frank, 1997).

The evolution of BC dimensionality reveals progressive theoretical development alongside growing conceptual challenges. Early research by Sundar et al. (2014) suggested three dimensions; Raptis et al. (2017) identified five dimensions, which were later expanded by Warren et al. (2019) by proposing ten operational dimensions, including rebelliousness, original, iconic, energetic, subculture, authenticity, high status, popular, aesthetically appealing and extraordinary, which are used in the current study and given in Table 1.

Anthropomorphism, a fundamental cognitive mechanism through which individuals attribute human-like characteristics to non-human entities, has been extensively studied across various disciplines (Epley et al., 2007). This psychological phenomenon has evolved from applications with pets (Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990) and technological gadgets (Epley et al., 2008) before emerging as an important concept in marketing and consumer behaviour research (Chen et al., 2021; Aggarwal and McGill, 2007).

The contemporary understanding of anthropomorphism is grounded in the work of Epley et al. (2007), who proposed a three-factor theory, which posits that anthropomorphic tendency varies based on:

1. Accessibility and applicability of anthropocentric knowledge;

2. Motivation for effectance; and

3. Desire for social connection.

Furthermore, Epley et al. (2008) revealed that individuals with dispositional loneliness (sociality motivation) exhibit an increased propensity to anthropomorphise familiar entities, while those with pronounced control needs (effectance motivation) tend to anthropomorphise unpredictable elements. These motivational and situational factors provide the psychological foundation for understanding how and why consumers anthropomorphise brands.

The conceptual evolution of BA gained significant drive with Puzakova et al.'s (2009) definition of anthropomorphism in brands as the perception of “actual human beings with various emotional states, minds, souls and conscious behaviours that can act as prominent members of social ties.” This definition encompasses the ascription of mental states (Gray et al., 2007), advanced cognitive capabilities (Waytz et al., 2010) and uniquely human emotional experiences to brands. Subsequently, Guido and Peluso (2015) expanded the theoretical landscape by focusing on product anthropomorphism, defining the extent to which a branded product is perceived as an actual human being. However, their work primarily addresses anthropomorphic products rather than brands themselves. Further, Golossenko et al. (2020) have refined its conceptualisation, developing a multidimensional framework that captures appearance, moral virtue, cognitive experience and conscious emotionality as key dimensions of BA.

The consequences of BA (Table 2) have been extensively documented in consumer behaviour research, revealing several key domains of influence. First, anthropomorphised brands foster stronger emotional connections and more favourable brand attitudes (Jin and Qian, 2021). Second, brands perceived as human-like entities elicit greater trust (Patrizi et al., 2024), affinity and credibility, enhancing consumer self-disclosure (Chen et al., 2021). Third, When viewed as collaborators rather than servants, anthropomorphised brands generate superior consumer engagement and satisfaction (Kim and Kramer, 2015). Fourth, BA influences purchase motivations (Aggarwal and McGill, 2007), brand commitment (Golossenko et al., 2020), favourable consumer responses (Lee and Oh, 2021), enhanced evaluative judgements (Epley et al., 2008), emotional bonding (Rauschnabel and Ahuvia, 2014), brand loyalty (Guido and Peluso, 2015), digital engagement (Tuskej and Podnar, 2018) and loyalty behaviours. Consequently, Marketing practitioners systematically use anthropomorphic strategies to mitigate perceived risks and optimise consumer outcomes (Aggarwal and McGill, 2012; He et al., 2021), enhancing brand equity and reducing consumer switching behaviour (Cui and Zhong, 2023).

Extant literature on anthropomorphism substantiates the strategic value of BA in cultivating consumer relationships and enhancing brand development. The effectiveness of anthropomorphic strategies varies according to brand personality dimensions, consumer familiarity and contextual factors, suggesting the necessity for nuanced implementation approaches. Given the demonstrated significance of BA in consumer behaviour, investigating its relationship with BC represents a promising avenue for theoretical advancement in marketing scholarship.

To elucidate the relationship between brand anthropomorphism (BA) and BC, this section draws upon research in branding, consumer behaviour and social cognition. BC is widely recognised as a multidimensional construct, encompassing rebellious, energetic, original, authentic, high-status, subcultural, iconic, popular, aesthetically appealing and extraordinary traits. Anthropomorphism, by attributing human-like qualities to brands can enhance consumer perceptions across these dimensions by making brands seem more intentional, expressive and socially relatable. In the sections that follow, each dimension of BC is discussed in relation to anthropomorphism and a logically derived hypothesis is presented to reflect this relationship.

BA – endowing brands with human-like traits – plays a pivotal role in cultivating the rebellious dimension of BC. When consumers are psychologically inclined to attribute intentionality and emotion to brands, anthropomorphic cues help brands express defiance, irreverence and autonomy – key markers of rebelliousness (Rahman, 2013). This humanisation allows brands to embody a persona that actively challenges norms and authority, thereby enhancing their coolness appeal. “Cool” brands often leverage anthropomorphic design and messaging to signal nonconformity and resistance (Warren and Campbell, 2014). Harley-Davidson, for instance, exemplifies this dynamic through its gritty, freedom-driven identity, constructed using bold, anthropomorphic elements that reflect rebellion and autonomy (Lee et al., 2018; Tiwari et al., 2021). Such expressions of brand defiance are perceived as authentic when framed with human-like intentionality and emotional resistance (Aggarwal and McGill, 2007). As Warren et al. (2019) argue, rebelliousness is a central facet of BC, particularly when it communicates independence and a challenge to authority. Therefore, anthropomorphism serves as a strategic mechanism through which brands can humanise rebellion, reinforcing the positive relationship between anthropomorphic branding and the rebellious aspect of perceived coolness. Thus, it is hypothesised that:

BA plays a vital role in shaping the energetic dimension of BC by allowing brands to appear vibrant, expressive and full of life. When brands adopt human-like characteristics, they are perceived as more dynamic and emotionally engaging, capturing consumer attention in ways that static or impersonal brands cannot (Puzakova et al., 2013). This perception of aliveness is particularly powerful in environments where consumers seek stimulation, novelty and emotional connection. Anthropomorphic elements – such as animated characters, expressive language and lively visual design – make brands feel spontaneous and spirited, helping them stand out in cluttered markets (Warren et al., 2019).

Nike, for example, uses anthropomorphic cues in its branding – most notably through its iconic logo and motivational tone – to communicate energy, autonomy and movement. Similarly, Red Bull and M&M’s use playful, animated figures and fast-paced messaging to project energetic, fun-loving brand personalities that appeal to consumers who value excitement and vitality (Chandler and Schwarz, 2010). These lively brand expressions not only entertain but also deepen emotional resonance, making the brand experience feel more interactive and human. As MacInnis and Folkes (2017) argue, consumers are particularly drawn to anthropomorphised brands that exhibit humour, liveliness and enthusiasm – qualities that directly support the perception of energetic coolness. In this way, anthropomorphism serves as a strategic tool that enables brands to humanise vitality and emotion, reinforcing the positive link between anthropomorphic design and the energetic dimension of BC. Thus, it is hypothesised that:

Originality is a hallmark of cool brands, often signalled through creative independence and nonconformity. According to Puzakova et al. (2013), anthropomorphised brands that are imaginative and non-traditional stand out in cluttered markets. This sense of creative independence aligns with the original cool dimension described by Warren et al. (2019). Through such expressions, anthropomorphism facilitates the brand’s departure from conformity and affirms its creative identity. Thus, it is hypothesised that:

BA plays a key role in strengthening the authentic dimension of BC by making brands appear more genuine, morally grounded and emotionally transparent. When brands adopt human-like traits, they become more relatable and trustworthy, allowing consumers to perceive them as having intentions, values and emotions akin to their own (Epley et al., 2007). This humanisation fosters a sense of authenticity, as anthropomorphic brands are better able to communicate consistent values and emotional sincerity (MacInnis and Folkes, 2017). Authenticity – characterised by moral alignment, emotional openness and staying true to brand roots – is central to coolness, particularly among consumers who seek deeper meaning in their brand relationships.

Brands like Tesla exemplify this connection by embedding anthropomorphic cues into their products and communications, helping to reinforce their identity as innovative yet authentic. Likewise, Patagonia and Ben and Jerry’s rely on first-person narratives and ethical storytelling to project warmth and integrity, further enhanced through anthropomorphic brand voices. As Kervyn et al. (2012) note, anthropomorphised brands are evaluated not just on competence but on perceived warmth and morality – critical components of authenticity. Therefore, by humanising brand identity and enabling emotionally resonant communication, anthropomorphism positively contributes to the perception of authenticity, reinforcing its role in the authentic dimension of BC. Thus, it is hypothesised that:

High-status perception emerges when brands convey prestige, exclusivity and refined competence (Warren et al., 2019). Anthropomorphic portrayals help convey these traits through confident behaviour, elite aesthetic cues and stylish personas. Apple’s “Mac versus PC” campaign is illustrative, with the anthropomorphised “Mac” figure projecting sophistication and cultural capital. Through such human-like representation, brands signal high social standing, which consumers interpret as a marker of high status (Kervyn et al., 2012). Thus, it is hypothesised that:

Brands that align with niche or countercultural communities often achieve subcultural perception. The congruence between a consumer’s self-concept and a brand’s image is particularly significant when the self-concept is shaped by aspirations to belong to a specific social group, such as one associated with high status. In such cases, consumers often leverage brand consumption as a means of expressing both individual distinctiveness and social affiliation (Bird and Tapp, 2008). These affiliations can span a variety of social formations, including iconic groups, subcultural communities, high-status collectives or broader social circles. Anthropomorphism amplifies this alignment by encouraging the perception of brands as entities with distinct characteristics such as prestige, social standing and self-worth. For example, anthropomorphising a sports utility vehicle (SUV) may foster a stronger sense of identification with a perceived in-group of SUV owners, clearly differentiated from drivers of conventional hatchbacks or sedans. Brand managers have strategically harnessed anthropomorphic cues – such as spokescharacters, mascots and symbolic figures – to position their offerings as representative of exclusive or aspirational consumer segments (Heine et al., 2018). Anthropomorphism can enable brands to embody insider roles, adopting the language, values and mannerisms of specific subgroups. When brands speak and behave like members of these communities, anthropomorphism can enhance credibility and foster deeper affiliation. This human connection helps brands integrate more naturally into subcultural spaces. Thus, it is hypothesised that:

Brands attain iconic status when they move beyond utility to embody enduring cultural significance. Anthropomorphic characters and narratives play a pivotal role in this transformation. Icons like Mickey Mouse or the Michelin Man function as longstanding brand ambassadors who convey warmth, competence and symbolic meaning (Heine et al., 2018). Kervyn et al. (2012) suggest that anthropomorphised traits contribute to deep consumer attachment, allowing brands to become cultural fixtures over time. Thus, it is hypothesised that:

Popular aspect reflects broad admiration, recognition and social integration. Anthropomorphic features – such as expressive characters or personable communication – make brands more relatable and shareable, fostering mass appeal. Coca-Cola’s polar bears and the Amul Girl serve as examples of anthropomorphised figures that enhance brand likability and virality. MacInnis and Folkes (2017) assert that personified brands are more easily integrated into social discourse and are better equipped to attract widespread attention. Thus, it is hypothesised that:

Aesthetic appeal is characterised by a blend of visual sophistication and emotional resonance. Anthropomorphism contributes to this dimension by embedding human-like traits into visual design elements, such as facial features, expressive forms and gestural cues, thereby enhancing the perceived aesthetic value of a brand. Hagtvedt and Patrick (2008) demonstrate that anthropomorphic design can deepen consumer appreciation, particularly when it conveys emotional depth and symbolic meaning. Such design strategies ranging from smiling packaging to stylish brand mascots facilitate emotionally resonant aesthetic experiences. Empirical findings suggest that anthropomorphism significantly influences consumers’ aesthetic judgements, with anthropomorphised brands often perceived as more likeable and visually appealing than their non-anthropomorphised counterparts (Puzakova et al., 2013). Furthermore, the inclusion of human-like attributes has been shown to increase brand likability, enhancing aesthetic appeal when evaluated through a human-centred lens (Landwehr et al., 2011). Thus, anthropomorphism plays a meaningful role in reinforcing the aesthetically appealing dimension of BC. Thus, it is hypothesised that:

Extraordinary brand perceptions arise when consumers encounter experiences that are surprising, novel or exceptionally useful. Anthropomorphism contributes meaningfully to this perception by attributing human-like traits – such as intelligence, proactivity or wit – to brands, thereby enhancing their perceived functionality and uniqueness. For instance, technologies like Alexa and Siri are often regarded as intuitive and helpful, largely due to their conversational, human-like interfaces (Chandler and Schwarz, 2010). Such interactions create moments of delight and exceed user expectations – key characteristics of extraordinary performance. Prior research has shown that anthropomorphism can improve product evaluations (Guido and Peluso, 2015), suggesting that anthropomorphic design elements may amplify the perceived utility and distinctiveness of products, particularly those seen as “cool”. We argue that anthropomorphic cues signalling human-like agency and competence can positively influence consumer perceptions, positioning certain brands as more beneficial, engaging and extraordinary. Based on this, we propose the following hypothesis:

To explore the direct relationship between BA and BC, We propose hypothesis:

Figure 1 depicts the research framework.

This study used a self-administered online survey to collect data from Indian millennial consumers, who constitute the world’s largest millennial demographic cohort. This segment was selected based on their distinctive consumption patterns and considerable market influence in India (Purani et al., 2019). Millennials represent a significant proportion of the Indian workforce and drive consumption across diverse product categories (Muralidharan and Xue, 2016). Moreover, their function as cultural trendsetters and their demonstrated influence on the purchasing behaviour of other demographic cohorts, notably Generation Z (Chaturvedi et al., 2020), renders them significant for the present investigation.

Smartphones were selected as a product category for examining anthropomorphisation phenomena due to their established status as highly personified technological artefacts (Wang, 2017). Extant literature conceptualises smartphones as social actors rather than utilitarian devices, a perspective substantiated by their extensive global market penetration (Tiwari et al., 2021). The anthropomorphisation of smartphones occurs organically through interactive functionalities that suggest cognitive capabilities, making them particularly suitable for investigating the relationship between product anthropomorphism and perceived coolness. Smartphones were selected as a context for examining BC and anthropomorphism due to their intimate integration into consumers’ daily lives and their status as extensions of self (Tiwari et al., 2021). This intimate relationship facilitates anthropomorphic attribution, as users often ascribe human-like characteristics to their devices (Wang, 2017). Further, rather than focusing on a specific smartphone brand, respondents were asked to evaluate their own devices. This methodological choice leverages direct consumer experience and emotional connections, enhancing ecological validity through actual perceptions rather than theoretical assessments. Additionally, this approach yields a heterogeneous data set spanning diverse brands and market segments, thereby improving generalisability while minimising potential biases associated with predetermined brand selections.

Using Facebook advertisements, data was collected via convenience sampling, a method previously validated in academic literature (Rife et al., 2014). Our Facebook ad featured an image and the text “Smartphone survey”, which included a link to the survey questionnaire. The advertisements ran from May to June 2022, generating 6,922 impressions. Of these, 2,162 individuals clicked on the questionnaire and 583 provided complete responses. The corresponding response rate of 26.69% falls within acceptable parameters for online surveys (Dillman, 2000). Female respondents represented 23% of the total sample (see Table 3), aligning closely with Facebook’s user demographic in India, where approximately 24% of users are female (Arora, 2016). This proportional representation underscores the credibility of the sampling process and supports the collected data.

Established measures from BC and anthropomorphism literature were adapted for the study. BC was operationalised through ten dimensions using 37 items from Warren et al. (2019), while BA was measured using five items adapted from Waytz et al. (2010), a scale widely used in anthropomorphism research. The study assessed natural BA without artificially anthropomorphised stimuli, acknowledging that consumers may attribute human-like characteristics to brands independent of intentional anthropomorphic design elements. All constructs were measured using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree).

This study implemented several procedural remedies following Podsakoff et al. (2003) to address and mitigate common method variance (CMV) concerns. The implemented measures included ensuring respondent anonymity, using validated measurement items from existing literature to reduce ambiguity and using question randomisation in the survey instrument. We used the common latent factor (CLF) approach to assess potential CMV issues, which involves comparing standardised regression weights between models with and without CLF (Lowry et al., 2012). The analysis revealed no significant CMV concerns in our data set.

The measurement model was assessed through a comprehensive evaluation of construct validity and reliability (Table 4). The standardised factor loadings range from 0.681 to 0.943, demonstrating statistical significance. Moreover, the average variance extracted (AVE) for all constructs ranges from 0.61–0.83, surpassing the recommended 0.50 threshold. Finally, all constructs’ composite reliabilities (CR) exceed the standard threshold of 0.7, confirming their reliability. The discriminant validity was established using the Fornell-Larcker criterion, where the square root of AVE for each construct exceeded its correlations with other constructs (Table 5) (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).

SEM software Amos 21.0 was used to analyse the proposed model. The model fit statistics corresponding to it are presented in Table 6. The structural model shows a good fit to the data with χ² = 2558, normed fit index (NFI) = 0.88, Tucker Lewis index (TLI) = 0.91; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.91 and root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA) lower than 0.08. Also, the measurement model showed a reasonable fit to the data with χ² (1665.17), NFI = 0.92; TLI = 0.91 and CFI = 0.96 and RMSEA = 0.044, which is lower than 0.08.

The results of our hypothesis testing revealed strong support for the proposed relationships between BA and BC dimensions (Table 6). The results show that BA was positively related to (H1) rebelliousness (β = 0.688; R² = 0.47; p < 0.001), (H2) energetic (β = 0.535; R² = 0.29; p < 0.001), (H3) originality (β = 0.722; R² = 0.52; p < 0.001) (H4) Authentic (β = 0.696; R² = 0.48; p < 0.001). Further, the analysis revealed that anthropomorphism was positively related to (H5) high status (β = 0.71; R² = 0.5; p < 0.001), (H6) Subculture appeal (β = 0.567; R² = 0.32; p < 0.001), (H7) Iconic (β = 0.481; R² = 0.23; p < 0.001) (H8) Popular (β = 0.688; R² = 0.47; p < 0.001). High status showed the strongest relationship (β = 0.71), indicating that anthropomorphised brands effectively convey social prestige.

Furthermore, the results show that anthropomorphism was positively related to aesthetic appeal (β = 0.648; R² = 0.42; p < 0.001). Finally, the anthropomorphic attributes of a cool brand expressing its functional/extraordinary qualities will be favourably evaluated. The results show that anthropomorphism was positively related to extraordinary/useful (β = 0.658; R² = 0.43; p < 0.001) (H10).

The analysis of our final hypothesis (H11) confirmed a significant positive relationship between anthropomorphism and the higher-order BC construct (β = 0.735; R² = 0.54; p < 0.001), suggesting that anthropomorphism contributes substantially to overall BC perceptions.

Our empirical investigation reveals several key findings supporting and extending the existing literature on anthropomorphism and BC. First, it establishes BA as a key antecedent of BC, addressing a critical theoretical gap (Warren et al., 2019). Results reveal that BA accounts for substantial variance (23% to 52%) across BC dimensions, with the most pronounced effect observed in originality (β = 0.722; R² = 0.52). This finding not only corroborates Sundar et al. (2014) emphasis on originality but significantly extends it by demonstrating how anthropomorphism can actively enhance this dimension, thus advancing our understanding of coolness cultivation mechanisms.

Second, analysis of dimensional effects reveals that both high-status (β = 0.71; R² = 0.5) and rebellious attributes (β = 0.688; R² = 0.47) align with Warren et al.'s (2019) finding on high status and rebelliousness in BC. While their work established the importance of these dimensions, our study extends their findings by demonstrating how brand anthropomorphisation can strategically enhance these characteristics.

Third, our finding regarding iconic attributes is particularly noteworthy, contrasting with Jiménez-Barreto et al.'s (2022) null results for iconic dimensions. Our results indicate that BA significantly influences brand iconicity, suggesting that the relationship between iconicity and coolness may be more nuanced than previously understood.

BC and BA have become pivotal constructs in contemporary marketing scholarship, offering valuable insights into how consumers form emotional and symbolic connections with brands. Increasingly, BC is understood as a multifaceted and contextually embedded construct, critical for brand differentiation and strategic positioning (Koskie and Locander, 2023; Loureiro et al., 2020; Tiwari et al., 2021). The construct has been linked to favourable consumer outcomes such as enhanced brand perceptions, stronger emotional attachment, improved financial performance and the cultivation of brand love (Warren et al., 2019). However, despite progress in conceptualising BC, relatively little research has focused on its antecedents.

In contrast, BA – the attribution of human-like qualities to brands – has received extensive attention due to its transformative effects on consumer behaviour and perception. Studies consistently demonstrate that BA strengthens consumer trust, emotional engagement, behavioural commitment and brand-related motivations (Patrizi et al., 2024). Furthermore, BA serves as a strategic tool for marketers seeking to reduce perceived consumer risk, enhance brand equity, build loyalty and limit brand switching (Aggarwal and McGill, 2012; He et al., 2021; Cui and Zhong, 2023). Yet, the relationship between these two constructs, BA and BC, has remained underexplored in theoretical and empirical research.

This study addresses this critical gap by examining BA as a significant antecedent to BC. Through this integration, it contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how human-like brand characteristics enhance perceptions of BC. The findings demonstrate that BA significantly influences BC by amplifying attributes commonly associated with coolness, such as emotional resonance, cultural relevance, authenticity and distinctiveness (Warren et al., 2019). These effects align with emotional contagion theory, which posits that consumers project their emotions onto anthropomorphised entities, thereby intensifying emotional connections (Aggarwal and McGill, 2007).

Importantly, the study reveals that BA exerts differential impacts across various dimensions of BC, with originality emerging as the most significantly influenced dimension. This insight not only reinforces prior findings (Warren et al., 2019) but also extends them by underscoring the primacy of originality in consumers’ perception of coolness when human-like qualities are present. BA appears to endow brands with distinctiveness and creativity, enhancing their perceived uniqueness and innovative appeal. This reinforces the notion that originality alongside authenticity, rebelliousness and energetic appeal is a key vector through which anthropomorphic cues shape coolness.

From a theoretical perspective, this research makes three main contributions. First, it establishes BA as a significant and previously underrecognised antecedent to BC, addressing a key gap in the literature and bridging two streams of research that have largely evolved independently. Second, it extends the theoretical framework of BC by illustrating how anthropomorphism influences specific dimensions of coolness, particularly originality, but also rebelliousness, aesthetic appeal, subcultural alignment and iconic status. Third, the findings respond to calls for expanded theoretical exploration of BA’s relationship with emerging brand constructs (Guido and Peluso, 2015), thereby deepening our understanding of consumer-brand dynamics.

Drawing from our findings, we present a structured framework for managers to leverage BA in enhancing BC. Our research reveals several actionable strategies that collectively address the multifaceted nature of BC through anthropomorphic implementation.

Incorporating human-like characteristics into brands enhances customer appraisals and amplifies the brand’s appeal. Brand managers should focus on promoting anthropomorphic aspects in their branding strategies to boost BC. For example, Tesla’s cars, famed for their sleek design and advanced technology, have cultivated a cool image by promoting features like Autopilot, which lends the car human-like self-navigating capabilities.

Smartphone brands can enhance perceptions of originality, a key dimension of BC, by crafting human-like narratives that emphasise creativity, purpose and individuality. Anthropomorphic storytelling portrays the brand as a visionary persona, positioning it as innovative and emotionally expressive. Apple’s “Think Different” campaign remains a classic example, where the brand embodied the spirit of cultural icons to communicate a rebellious, inventive character. Although a technology brand, Apple’s humanised tone helped establish an identity that was not only original but aspirational. For emerging or niche smartphone brands, developing character-driven campaigns or introducing persona-driven brand mascots can similarly reflect originality and make the brand feel distinctive in a saturated market.

Authenticity remains central to smartphone BC, especially when the brand is perceived as honest, self-aware and transparent. Anthropomorphic expression allows brands to show vulnerability through playful acknowledgements of mistakes, behind-the-scenes insights or unfiltered updates. A smartphone brand could, for example, share stories from product designers or respond candidly to user feedback with a conversational tone. This humanised communication breaks down corporate formality and enhances relatability. Millennial audiences, in particular, respond positively to brands that are transparent, own their imperfections and engage sincerely, reinforcing perceptions of authenticity and coolness.

Emotional relatability is a key pathway through which anthropomorphism increases BC, as it fosters a sense of warmth, humour and empathy. When brands communicate like humans, using first-person language, expressing emotions and responding playfully – they reduce psychological distance and trigger emotional contagion. Duolingo’s TikTok presence, where the mascot owl participates in trends, jokes with users and reacts boldly to cultural moments, demonstrates how anthropomorphised brand behaviour can drive social connection and cultural relevance. These emotionally engaging interactions make the brand feel alive and socially attuned, qualities consumers associate with coolness. For Millennial audiences, who value brands that are socially responsive and emotionally intelligent, this type of interaction is particularly resonant. Managers should therefore design brand touchpoints, from social media to packaging that reflect human-like tones, build rapport and make the brand feel emotionally accessible.

Visual anthropomorphism, through expressive mascots, stylised characters or humanised product features, can signal rebelliousness and align the brand with subcultural identities. These visual cues are particularly powerful in markets where coolness is associated with nonconformity and individuality. Converse’s long-standing alignment with skateboarding and punk scenes exemplifies this strategy. Integrating anthropomorphic visuals such as edgy avatars or animated brand figures can amplify these associations and create a sense of insider identity. For Millennial consumers who often embrace alternative aesthetics and value nostalgic cultural references, anthropomorphic branding that ties into these subcultural elements can strengthen emotional relevance. Collaborations with artists, musicians or niche communities can further reinforce this connection and enhance the brand’s distinctiveness.

Because anthropomorphism influences different dimensions of BC with varying strength, smartphone marketers should align specific human-like traits to the coolness attributes most valued by their audience. For example, a brand that wants to emphasise originality might adopt a quirky, curious persona, while one targeting emotional resonance might embody warmth and empathy. Strategic psychographic segmentation helps identify which coolness traits – rebelliousness, authenticity, emotionality – matter most to the brand’s Millennial base. By matching the anthropomorphic personality to these preferences, smartphone brands can deliver more resonant, meaningful brand experiences that foster long-term emotional loyalty and social relevance.

The significant influence of anthropomorphism on brand iconicity presents an opportunity for long-term brand building. Managers should focus on developing enduring anthropomorphic elements that can evolve while maintaining the core brand essence. Successful examples include Harley Davidson’s and Old Spice’s generational adaptation of their brand personality while maintaining consistent core values. Table 7 presents the research conclusions and implications:

While this study offers valuable insights into BA and BC, several limitations warrant acknowledgement and suggest directions for future research. While yielding significant findings, our focus on smartphone brands potentially limits results from generalisability across product categories. Future research could examine how the anthropomorphism-coolness relationship manifests in diverse contexts such as services, luxury goods or fast-moving consumer goods. Furthermore, our data’s relatively low proportion of female participants (23%) presents a potential bias towards male perspectives. This discrepancy may impact the generalisability of our findings to a broader population and highlights the need to address gender representation in future research.

Additionally, the cross-sectional nature of our data presents another limitation. Longitudinal studies could better illuminate the temporal dynamics of anthropomorphic strategies’ influence on BC development, particularly in rapidly evolving markets. Additionally, cultural considerations present another important research avenue, as our study is conducted within a single cultural context. Cross-cultural studies could examine how different cultural contexts moderate the relationship between BA and coolness dimensions. Furthermore, research could explore how various consumer segments respond to anthropomorphic brand expressions. Finally, investigating the potential adverse effects of anthropomorphism on BC merits attention, as understanding these boundaries could help managers avoid pitfalls while maintaining brand authenticity and consistency across touchpoints.

The author(s) received no financial support for this project.