Sustainable tourism in the age of digitalization: how metaverse, engagement and well-being influence responsible travel choices Open Access

The tourism industry is undergoing a profound transformation, driven not only by technological advances and environmental concerns but also by the growing need to understand how virtual experiences influence real-world responsible behavior (Rather et al., 2025). While sustainable tourism has received increasing attention, the psychological and cognitive mechanisms that connect digital engagement – such as the metaverse – with travelers’ responsible intentions remain underexplored (Fan et al., 2022). Addressing this gap, the present study introduces a novel framework that integrates immersive technologies, leadership influences and cognitive capabilities such as big data capability and learning ambidexterity (BDLA) within the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to explain responsible travel behavior.

Recent worldwide trends further emphasize the urgency of this inquiry. For instance, international arrivals reached approximately 1.4 billion in 2024 (an 11% increase), while tourism accounts for nearly 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions (UNWTO, 2025; Stokes, 2024). With 75% of travelers now expressing a desire to travel more sustainably (Piva, 2025), the industry is exploring metaverse technologies as a means to foster environmental awareness and behavioral change before actual visitation.

The metaverse has emerged as a transformative digital platform enabling travelers to virtually explore destinations before actual visitation (Ud Din and Almogren, 2023). Such immersive, pre-trip simulations enhance tourists’ understanding of cultural, environmental and ethical dimensions of travel (Dwivedi et al., 2022). Research suggests that these experiences can foster a sense of place attachment, environmental sensitivity and cultural respect (Rather et al., 2025). However, limited empirical evidence exists on whether metaverse-based interactions translate into sustained responsible behaviors in physical travel contexts – a critical gap this study seeks to address.

Visitor well-being – encompassing psychological, emotional and physical health – is increasingly recognized as a desirable tourism outcome. Prior research highlights that well-being-centric experiences, such as mindfulness retreats, ecotherapy and wellness travel, contribute to personal satisfaction and a deeper environmental connection (Çiki and Tanriverdi, 2024). Yet, the association between visitor well-being and responsible travel behavior is not well understood (Zhao and Weng, 2024). While it is theorized that individuals who experience greater well-being during travel may be more inclined to engage in conscious, sustainable behaviors, empirical validation in digital tourism contexts remains limited.

Environmental awareness remains a foundational determinant of responsible travel (Lee and Jan, 2019). While this relationship is well established in traditional ecotourism, its dynamics in digitally mediated environments – such as virtual tours and metaverse-based sustainability narratives – are relatively underexplored (Tavitiyaman et al., 2024). This study explores whether awareness developed in virtual environments promotes real-world sustainability actions.

Similarly, visitor engagement, encompassing active participation in conservation or cultural activities, is known to strengthen pro-social and pro-environmental behaviors (Kamel, 2025; Hollebeek et al., 2014). With the integration of digital platforms such as the metaverse, new forms of engagement are emerging, yet their influence on tourist sustainable behavior remains underinvestigated. Specifically, the impact of digital engagement on travelers’ sense of responsibility in sustainability narratives remains unclear. Addressing this gap, the current study examines the relationship between visitor engagement and responsible travel behavior, providing insights into how interactive experiences can foster sustainable intentions and actions.

Beyond psychological and attitudinal drivers, this research introduces BDLA – a combination of data-handling capacity and adaptive learning – as a cognitive bridge between virtual exposure and responsible travel decisions. While BDLA has traditionally been explored at the organizational level (Lin and McDonough, 2014; Wamba et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2025), this study extends it to individual travelers, emphasizing their ability to process sustainability data and adapt digital insights to real-world behavior.

A key research gap addressed by this study is the introduction of BDLA as a mediating mechanism that explains how virtual tourism experiences translate into real-world responsible behaviors. While BDLA is traditionally applied at the organizational level, we adapt it to the individual traveler context, where users increasingly process complex digital sustainability data and apply adaptive learning strategies in planning their trips. This conceptual transposition is supported by the growing personalization of tourism technologies and travelers’ engagement with interactive digital content (Qayyum et al., 2025a; Rather et al., 2025; Wamba et al., 2017). By integrating BDLA into TPB, we provide a novel lens to explain how digital exposure, cognitive processing and leadership cues coalesce to influence sustainable tourism behavior. This framework is among the first, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, to apply such a configuration of psychological and technological mechanisms to responsible travel in metaverse environments.

Leadership conscientiousness is another overlooked factor. While previous research emphasizes the role of tour guides and sustainability influencers in shaping traveler attitudes (Ballantyne et al., 2018), limited attention has been given to how leader conscientiousness, the degree to which tourism leaders exhibit responsible and structured behavior, moderates the effect of engagement on sustainable choices (Tehseen et al., 2024). Given the rise of AI-driven travel influencers and digital sustainability advocates, understanding how leaders’ conscientiousness influences responsible tourism behavior is vital for developing effective sustainability communication strategies (Marti-Ochoa et al., 2025).

Guided by the TPB (Ajzen, 1991), this study conceptualizes responsible travel as a function of attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control in digital contexts. Metaverse experiences and environmental awareness shape attitudes toward sustainability; visitor engagement reinforces subjective norms through social influence. Leader conscientiousness functions as an external normative cue that activates and strengthens these norms, and visitor well-being and BDLA enhance perceived behavioral control by improving travelers’ confidence and cognitive capacity to act responsibly. This integration extends TPB by embedding technological and psychological mechanisms into responsible travel behavior.

Building on these theoretical gaps, this study formulates the following research questions to guide empirical investigation:

This section reviews the literature on four key antecedents of responsible travel behavior: metaverse experience, visitor well-being, visitor engagement and environmental awareness. It further examines the mediating role of BDLA and the moderating role of leader conscientiousness. The discussion is anchored in the TPB, which provides a foundational lens to explore how psychological, social and technological factors influence responsible tourism behavior. TPB posits that attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control collectively shape behavioral intentions, which in turn predict actual behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Recently, TPB has been applied in the ecotourism context; particularly, Tan et al. (2025) used it to explore how environmental awareness and personality traits influence visitor intentions.

In the present study, TPB is expanded to incorporate digital engagement and cognitive mechanisms as psychological determinants of responsible travel choices. Each construct not only aligns with a TPB component but also operationalizes it through distinct psychological pathways. Specifically, metaverse experiences and environmental awareness are attitudinal mechanisms because they shape travelers’ perceptions of sustainability and ethical tourism by providing immersive, environmentally friendly experiences that elicit positive affect toward responsible behavior. In contrast, visitor engagement reflects subjective norms, as it involves socially reinforced sustainability practices. Visitor well-being reflects perceived behavioral control, as well-being enhances travelers’ psychological readiness and confidence to act responsibly. BDLA represents a higher-order cognitive capability comprising both big data processing competence and learning ambidexterity. Rather than representing perceived control itself, BDLA provides the cognitive and learning infrastructure that enables travelers to operationalize their perceived control into informed, sustainable actions (Ballantyne et al., 2018; Wamba et al., 2017). Thus, BDLA extends TPB by adding a capability-based foundation for perceived control, linking cognitive processing with behavioral execution in digital tourist settings. Finally, leader conscientiousness extends the normative dimension of TPB by demonstrating how visible role models – whether human or AI-based – activate social expectations for sustainability through consistent, trustworthy and ethically oriented leadership cues.

By critically examining how each variable functions within TPB’s attitudinal, normative and control dimensions, the framework provides a richer explanation of how digital exposure and psychological mechanisms converge to shape responsible tourism behavior.

Metaverse has revolutionized travel by letting users virtually view destinations before going. Before the emergence of the metaverse, early virtual tourism studies focused on basic VR (virtual reality) simulations and digital walkthroughs that offered limited interactivity but laid the foundation for immersive pre-travel experiences (Guttentag, 2010). These foundational studies highlighted the potential of virtual exposure to influence destination image and behavioral intentions.

Contemporary research shows that the metaverse allows users to virtually explore diverse cultures and learn about environmental challenges (Rather et al., 2025). Virtual tourism helps travelers understand responsible tourism by showing how their choices influence others (Yung and Khoo-Lattimore, 2019). These simulations can educate travelers by shaping perceptions of sustainability by providing realistic visualizations of environmental degradation or cultural erosion caused by tourism (Dwivedi et al., 2022). Moreover, real-time environmental feedback simulations (e.g. seeing littering’s virtual consequences) boost sustainable behavior (Tussyadiah et al., 2018).

From a TPB perspective, these immersive experiences influence travelers’ attitudes toward sustainable tourism by enhancing awareness, emotional involvement and perceived benefits of responsible travel. Additionally, adoption of metaverse tourism tools may be influenced by constructs such as perceived usefulness and ease of use, as posited in the technology acceptance model (Davis, 1989) and Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (Venkatesh et al., 2003), suggesting that user perceptions of these technologies mediate their impact on travel intentions. Understanding these adoption dynamics is crucial for designing effective virtual tourism interventions.

However, most studies in this area rely on conceptual reasoning, with few empirically validating whether virtual exposure leads to sustained real-world behavior change (Rather et al., 2025). Additionally, while metaverse experiences share interactivity elements with broader engagement constructs, they differ in scope: metaverse tourism focuses on pre-travel immersive exposure, whereas engagement captures ongoing participation. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:

Visitor well-being refers to the psychological, emotional and physical health outcomes that arise from tourism experiences. Sustainable tourism practices, such as nature immersion and mindfulness tourism, enhance traveler well-being and may reinforce eco-conscious attitudes (Singh et al., 2023; Çiki and Tanriverdi, 2024). In addition, ecopsychology research demonstrates that nature vacations boost mental health and promote environmental causes (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). Well-being-focused tourism activities, including wellness retreats and mindfulness-based ecotourism, have been found to enhance not only mental and emotional health but also pro-social and eco-conscious tendencies (Lee and Jan, 2019). From a TPB perspective, improved well-being can enhance perceived behavioral control by increasing individuals’ confidence in their ability to act sustainably during travel.

Despite these positive associations, pleasure and safe travel are complex. While some studies show a positive association between wellness-focused tourism and responsible behavior, others caution that this depends on values and individual motivations (Kim et al., 2024). For instance, travelers focused on material gains may struggle to translate well-being into eco-action. Moreover, research in virtual environments lacks robust empirical testing to determine whether enhanced well-being from digital tourism can influence real-world sustainability choices (Ud Din and Almogren, 2023):

Visitor engagement is a multidimensional construct reflecting the depth of psychological and behavioral involvement in tourism experiences (Qayyum et al., 2025a). Engagement plays a critical role in shaping positive consumer outcomes, particularly in the online services context (Nazir et al., 2025; Rehman et al., 2025). Engaging experiences boost sustainability commitment and the possibility that engaged visitors would travel responsibly (Boley and McGehee, 2014). Moreover, recent studies demonstrate that virtual online tourist engagement predicts behaviors (Schweiggart et al., 2025; Shah et al., 2025). From a TPB perspective, such engagement reinforces subjective norms by embedding sustainability expectations within participatory tourism practices.

Although both metaverse experience and visitor engagement involve digital interaction, they represent conceptually distinct processes. Metaverse experience refers to users’ immersive, system-driven exposure to virtual environments, including sensory immersion, interaction affordances and experiential realism. Visitor engagement, on the other hand, is a higher level psychological state that involves long-term mental, emotional and behavioral involvement in tourist activities. Recent metaverse tourism research demonstrates that metaverse experience functions as an antecedent of engagement rather than constituting engagement itself (Rather et al., 2025). Accordingly, the metaverse experience is conceptualized as an attitudinal stimulus influencing sustainability assessments, while visitor engagement is characterized as a socially reinforced motivating condition that triggers subjective norms and behavioral consistency. This distinction avoids conceptual redundancy and clarifies their separate theoretical roles.

Research indicates that highly engaged tourists are more likely to internalize sustainability values and exhibit responsible behavior. For example, visitors participating in beach cleanups or heritage preservation projects tend to develop a stronger sense of obligation toward the environment. Importantly, passive exposure to sustainability messages may not be sufficient unless it is accompanied by high-quality, interactive engagement:

Environmental awareness, which encompasses tourists’ knowledge of ecological issues and the impact of their travel decisions, is crucial to responsible travel, according to Cheng and Wu (2015). Eco-conscious tourists stay in eco-friendly hotels and limit waste, thus contributing positively to environmental awareness (Tavitiyaman et al., 2024). Educational programs such as destination-based conservation, metaverse simulations and interactive sustainability programs may impact responsible travel choices. Furthermore, studies suggest that environmental education influences travel preferences (Syed-Abdullah, 2024; Zhao and Yuan, 2023). In line with the TPB, environmental awareness shapes travelers’ attitudes toward sustainability, thereby increasing their intention to engage in responsible tourism behavior.

Nevertheless, most of this evidence comes from traditional ecotourism contexts, with limited investigation into virtual or hybrid environments. While visual storytelling and emotional appeals have proven effective in promoting sustainable attitudes (Lee and Jan, 2019), the long-term impact of environmental awareness derived from digital platforms remains uncertain. This study addresses that gap by exploring how virtual awareness-building translates into responsible travel behavior:

The ability to receive, assess and apply enormous volumes of digital data for decision-making is called “big data capability” (Cheng and Wu, 2015). Tussyadiah et al. (2018) found that metaverse-based tourists may access a multitude of environmental, conservation and sustainable practice data. Tourists are more likely to plan eco-friendly activities when they interact with digital content rich in sustainability data, such as interactive virtual maps that display carbon footprints or AI-driven sustainability recommendations (Lee and Jan, 2019). Digital tourism platforms’ big data insights also educate visitors about how their consumption affects local ecosystems and economies, encouraging them to change their behavior (Cuomo et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2025).

Learning ambidexterity, first conceptualized by March (1991), reflects the ability to alternate between exploration and exploitation. In tourism contexts, this dual capability allows travelers to apply prior knowledge while adapting to new sustainability information (Raisch and Birkinshaw, 2008). Digital tourists who participate in sustainability-themed metaverse experiences such as gamified conservation challenges, virtual eco-tours or AI-powered environmental storytelling are more likely to adopt these practices in real life (Miller et al., 2010). Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) found that ambidextrous tourists are more likely to choose eco-friendly accommodations, support local companies and reduce their carbon footprints.

BDLA stresses the cognitive effort required to turn virtual exposure into real-world action. Dwivedi et al. (2022) showed that metaverse-based responsible tourism experiences improve data-driven decision-making and learning flexibility. Big data and adaptive learning may help travelers assess their environmental and social impacts. Tussyadiah et al. (2018) found that digital travelers who engage in sustainability simulations before their trip are more inclined to take environmental action. From a TPB perspective, BDLA complements perceived behavioral control by providing the cognitive and learning capabilities through which perceived control can be effectively enacted in digital tourism contexts.

Although BDLA was initially conceptualized at the organizational level (Shamim et al., 2020), its core components – data processing competence and learning ambidexterity – are inherently cognitive and therefore transferable to individual decision contexts. Recent research demonstrates that individuals increasingly operate in data-rich environments requiring similar exploratory and exploitative learning behaviors traditionally attributed to organizations (Ceptureanu et al., 2025). In tourism settings, travelers actively interpret sustainability indicators, algorithmic recommendations and immersive simulations, requiring both analytical reasoning and adaptive learning. Thus, conceptualizing BDLA at the individual level does not undermine its theoretical validity; rather, it serves as a contextual extension aligned with the microfoundations viewpoint of dynamic capacities. This adaptation corresponds with emerging scholarship that regards ambidextrous learning as an individual cognitive capability rather than merely an organizational practice.

Digital tourism platforms increasingly include gamified content, real-time feedback and AI-driven decision tools that help tourists understand the ecological consequences of their choices (Wu et al., 2025). However, the cognitive effort required to process such data varies. Visitors with higher BDLA are better positioned to transform digital engagement into meaningful, sustainable behaviors. Despite its potential, BDLA has rarely been applied at the individual level in tourism literature, and this study is among the first, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, to adapt it to the traveler context:

Leadership behavior plays a vital role in shaping tourists’ sustainability norms. Conscientious leaders – whether tour guides, digital influencers, or sustainability advocates – can strengthen travelers’ pro-environmental values by modeling responsible behavior and providing actionable guidance (Tehseen et al., 2024;Marti-Ochoa et al., 2025). When a leader encourages responsible travel, their audience is more likely to follow suit (Lee and Jan, 2019). Ballantyne et al. (2018) found that tourists were more likely to reduce plastic use, give back to local communities and preserve natural resources after interacting with eco-friendly tour guides and online influencers.

Leaders who emphasize sustainability and its relevance help travelers make ethical decisions (Miller et al., 2010; Hoang et al., 2025). Similarly, digital sustainability campaigns and metaverse-based tourism experiences yield enhanced results if their leaders are trustworthy and passionate about the cause (Dwivedi et al., 2022). When they promote eco-friendly activities online, sustainability influencers affect their followers’ real-world decisions (Tussyadiah et al., 2018). Moreover, followers are less likely to engage in responsible tourism if leaders are indifferent to sustainability (Padilla et al., 2007). In contrast, highly conscientious leaders enhance tourists’ moral obligation and engagement levels, increasing the likelihood of responsible behavior.

From a TPB perspective, leader conscientiousness does not constitute a subjective norm itself; rather, it functions as an external normative influence that reinforces subjective norms by signaling socially desirable and ethically appropriate travel behavior.

In digital tourism contexts, leadership influence is exercised not only by traditional tour guides but also by social media influencers, destination brand representatives and AI-driven virtual guides. Accordingly, leader conscientiousness in this study reflects travelers’ perceptions of these digital and human leaders’ consistency, ethical orientation, responsibility and sustainability advocacy across online and immersive platforms. Such leaders shape social expectations by repeatedly signaling what constitutes appropriate and desirable travel behavior, thereby reinforcing sustainability-oriented subjective norms. Importantly, leader conscientiousness is conceptualized as an external normative cue that activates and strengthens subjective norms within the TPB framework, rather than as a subjective norm itself.

Although conscientiousness is conventionally examined within organizational leadership, its relevance extends to individual-level influence in tourism contexts. Leaders, including travel influencers or guides, serve as salient social referents shaping tourists’ perceived norms and moral responsibility. When leaders demonstrate conscientious behavior – characterized by reliability, ethical concern and goal orientation – they model sustainable conduct that followers internalize. This individual-level adaptation is consistent with TPB’s normative pathway, wherein perceived expectations from credible others guide behavioral intentions (Ajzen, 1991). Hence, leader conscientiousness acts as an external normative amplifier, shaping the normative pathway between engagement and responsible behavior.

Despite growing recognition of the importance of leadership, few studies have empirically examined how conscientious leadership influences tourist behavior (Hoang et al., 2025), particularly in digital tourism contexts. This lack of empirical validation creates uncertainty around the consistency and generalizability of leadership effects. Moreover, much of the existing research focuses on traditional tour leaders (Sengoz et al., 2025), overlooking the rising influence of digital influencers and AI-driven guides. By positioning leader conscientiousness as a moderator rather than a direct TPB component, this study addresses these limitations and clarifies its role as a contextual normative amplifier within the TPB framework:

The study’s conceptual framework is presented in Figure 1.

To empirically test our conceptual framework, this study examines the direct effects of metaverse experience, visitor well-being, engagement and environmental awareness on responsible travel behavior. In addition, the mediating influence of BDLA and the moderating role of leader conscientiousness are investigated. Detailed theoretical integration of BDLA and leader conscientiousness with the TPB framework has been discussed extensively in the literature review section.

We conducted a comprehensive study using an online survey to collect data from participants. Dillman et al. (2014) recommend online surveys for data collection because they are simple to run, cover a vast region and are inexpensive. The participants were initially contacted via a tailored post on social media, travel forums and academic networks to ensure a diverse range of respondents. We “BUMP” our posts every two weeks to keep the post in active feeds across all platforms to maximize response rate. Moreover, participants were asked to complete an online questionnaire through a link attached to the post. Our posts were designed to clarify the study’s aims, timeline and value of their opinions. In the first 3 weeks, the response rate was 21%. By increasing the number of visuals in posts, we improved the response rate from 21% to 34%. Furthermore, in the 4th week, we added travel forums, which further boosted the response rate to 53%. In the 6th week, we added academic networks/forms; this step further increased our response rate to 67%. By the 7th week, we added responsible tourism practitioners’ forums, data-driven travel decision-makers and metaverse-based tourism platforms, thus reaching 69%. By the end of the 8th week, we were able to generate a response rate of 76%, which was substantially higher than typical (Baruch and Holtom, 2008). G*Power analysis determined the minimum sample size to have a statistically significant power level of 0.80 and an effect size of 0.30 (Cohen et al., 1988). The 500-person sample ensured statistical reliability and demographic diversity. Based on our sample size, we collected 500 responses. Later, we discarded 64 responses we believed were completed randomly.

Table 1 depicts the demographic characteristics of the study participants. The group seemed balanced and diverse, with 55% male and 45% female. The age group distribution shows that most respondents are the prime working-age demographic associated with active digital participation and travel decision-making: 35–44 (25% of the total) and 25–34 (35%). 20% of respondents were aged 18–24. Moreover, 20% were aged 45 and older, demonstrating sample inclusivity. A total of 45% of responders have bachelor’s degrees, and 30% have master’s degrees. This suggests that the sample is well-educated and can critically assess digital and responsible tourism concepts. Fewer than 20% of participants have a PhD. North America (40%) and Europe (30%) make up the majority of the sample, which is expected given their strong digital infrastructure and responsible tourism understanding. Digital tourism is growing in Asia, accounting for 20% of the sample. The remaining 10% comes from other regions to offer a global view. Half of the study respondents were very digitally literate and comfortable using the metaverse and big data analytics to organize their travel plans.

We targeted forums from North America, Europe and Asia because of their high digital tourism trends. These locations were selected for their swift adoption of new tourism technology and simple access to digital resources (Gretzel, 2019). The survey was developed using standardized scales for content validity. The measurement set included the metaverse experience scale (Tussyadiah et al., 2018), which measures viewer engagement with metaverse tourist experiences with statements such as “I frequently use virtual reality platforms to explore travel destinations before visiting in person.” The BDLA measures were adapted from Wamba et al. (2017) in travel decision-making. The sample item is “I am adept at integrating new travel-related knowledge from multiple sources.” The visitor engagement scale was adapted from Hollebeek et al. (2014). The sample item is “I actively participate in interactive elements of tourism experiences, such as virtual guided tours.” We adapted the scale of Kaiser and Wilson (2004) to measure environmental awareness. The sample item is “I am highly aware of the environmental impact of my travel choices.” The scale of responsible travel behavior was adapted from Dolnicar and Leisch (2008), with the sample item including “I consciously choose travel options that have a minimal environmental footprint.” Visitor well-being was measured using a scale adapted from Grzeskowiak and Sirgy (2007), with the sample item “The tourism experience significantly contributed to my leisure well-being”. The leader’s conscientiousness scale was based on the Big Five personality traits framework (Costa and McCrae, 1992) and leadership research by Colbert and Witt (2009), contextualized for tourism and digital leadership settings. In line with recent tourism research, respondents were asked to evaluate the conscientiousness of tourism leaders they follow or interact with in digital or travel-related contexts, including tour leaders, sustainability influencers, destination representatives and virtual tourism guides. This scale measures tourism executives’ responsibility, structure and sustainable decision-making. Sample items include “I prioritize responsible tourism initiatives on my team,” “I educate travelers about responsible behaviors” and “I focus on the long-term environmental impact of my decisions as a leader.” Respondents rated their agreement with these statements on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).

A pilot test (n = 31) was conducted to ensure clarity, reliability and contextual relevance of the adapted scales. Minor wording adjustments were made to align items with the digital tourism context (e.g. replacing “organization” with “tourism experience” or “leader” with “tour guide/influencer”), while preserving their original conceptual meaning. No items were dropped, as all factor loadings exceeded the 0.70 threshold during the pretest, confirming content adequacy and measurement consistency.

To test common method variance (CMV), we applied both procedural and statistical measures. Procedurally, respondents were assured of anonymity. Additionally, the order of items was randomized, and conceptually distinct constructs were separated across questionnaire sections. These remedies helped limit the CMV issues (Podsakoff et al., 2003).

Statistically, we performed two tests. First, an examination of inner variance inflation factors revealed that all values were less than 3.3, suggesting that the model had no significant CMV concern (Kock, 2015). Second, Harman’s single-factor test accounts for 36.8% of variance, which is below the threshold of 50% (Qayyum et al., 2025b; Schweiggart et al., 2025). This indicates that the model was free of CMV.

Following the established guidelines of Hair et al. (2019), data were analyzed in two assessments:

1. Measurement model; and

2. Structural model.

SPSS and AMOS were used for descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. To ensure accuracy, reliability and validity, tests were done. Cronbach’s alpha was assessed using an internal consistency criterion of >0.70 (Qayyum et al., 2025a). Confirmatory factor analysis was done following the guidelines of Hair et al. (2019) to validate the construct. Convergent and discriminant validity were assessed using the Fornell and Larcker (1981) criterion. The research was anonymous and required informed consent. The institutional review board of one of the affiliated institutions sought ethical authorization to conduct a human study.

We reported multiple measures of model fit, as detailed in Table 2. The observed χ²/df = 2.10, below 3.0, indicates a well-specified and low misfit model. The Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) of 0.93 and the comparative fit index (CFI) of 0.95 are above the cutoff of > 0.90, suggesting a good model fit. These results demonstrate that the recommended model better explains data and predicts responsible travel patterns than a baseline model. CFI and TLI findings support the hypothesized routes by demonstrating that the theoretical components and their interactions were well defined and examined. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) of 0.04 indicates a close match between the theoretical model and real data, falling inside the < 0.05 limit. Low RMSEA indicates a lack of unnecessary complexity and a brief description of variable interactions. This proves that the structural equation model accurately reflects conscientious travel mechanics. The model’s good fit is backed by an appropriate standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) of <0.08, specifically 0.05. It measures the average difference between expected and observed correlations and shows whether the recommended model accurately reflects the data. Finally, the R² value of 0.108 in this study indicates a reasonable level of explanatory power, suggesting that the model captures a meaningful portion of the variance in responsible travel behavior, which is typical for behavioral research (Ozili, 2023).

These fit indices show that the model is statistically sound and accurately describes the study’s variables. The findings may verify and strengthen the predicted paradigm in future digital participation and sustainability tourism research. Model fit results suggest this framework is suitable for real-world applications. Tourism-related companies, governments and digital developers may use this model to create digital engagement initiatives, leadership training programs and sustainability solutions to encourage responsible tourism.

Table 3 depicts the descriptive statistics and validity estimates. Specifically, we examined average variance extracted (AVE), composite reliability (CR), maximum shared variance (MSV) and average shared variance (ASV). While AVE and CR are used in assessing convergent validity, the MSV and ASV values examine discriminant validity concerns (Hair et al., 2019). The acceptable thresholds for CR and AVE are >0.50 and >0.70, respectively (Qayyum et al., 2025b), whereas the values of MSV and ASV should be less than the AVE scores to confirm discriminant validity (Qayyum et al., 2023).

In the present study, the AVE values range from 0.62 to 0.70, indicating that each construct captures sufficient variance from its indicators. Responsible travel behavior has the highest AVE (0.70), suggesting that its measurement items explain a larger proportion of the variance compared to other constructs. Visitor engagement (0.68) and BDLA (0.65) also show strong AVE values, reinforcing the robustness of their measurement models. CR values indicate strong internal consistency, with all constructs scoring above 0.80. Responsible travel behavior (0.88) has the highest reliability, showing a well-structured and consistent measurement model, while visitor engagement (0.85) also demonstrates strong reliability. The CR for visitor well-being (0.82) suggests a well-defined construct with good measurement consistency.

The MSV values suggest that visitor engagement (0.55) and responsible travel behavior (0.52) have the highest shared variance with other constructs, implying their strong interconnectedness with different aspects of the visitor experience. Visitor well-being has an MSV of 0.50, indicating substantial overlap with other constructs, particularly engagement and sustainability-related behaviors. The ASV values, which measure the average correlation between a construct and others, range from 0.35 to 0.50. Visitor engagement (0.50) and responsible travel behavior (0.47) have the highest ASV, suggesting their central role in influencing various aspects of visitor experiences. Visitor well-being, with an ASV of 0.44, is closely linked to related constructs, reinforcing its importance in determining the overall quality of the visitor experience.

Table 4 depicts the results that validated all predictions by showing significant connections between the study’s key variables. H1 is supported, showing that metaverse experience positively and significantly affects responsible travel behavior (β = 0.35, SE = 0.05, p = 0.001). This indicates that metaverse simulations before a trip increase tourists’ commitment to sustainable lifestyles. Virtual experiences have a significant influence on positive environmental and ethical tourism choices. These results support prior research showing that VR tourism improves eco-consciousness and positive behavior change (Dey et al., 2022). H2 is also supported, with visitor well-being positively influencing responsible travel behavior (β = 0.28, SE = 0.06, p = 0.002). Results indicate that tourists who prioritize well-being experiences, such as eco-retreats, nature-based tourism and mindful travel, are more likely to engage in sustainable practices. Aligned with recent research (Singh et al., 2023), this suggests that tourists who emphasize their health and happiness make better trip plans. Therefore, sustainability-driven tourism may include mental and emotional wellness in meaningful holidays.

H3 receives the strongest support, as visitor engagement has the highest impact on responsible travel behavior (β = 0.40, SE = 0.04, p = 0.000). Travelers actively participating in these environmental activities are more likely to be responsible. Participation directly converts information into action, supporting past research that shows active participation boosts tourists’ long-term commitment to sustainable practices (Rather et al., 2025). H4 is also supported, with environmental awareness positively influencing responsible travel behavior (β = 0.30, SE = 0.05, p = 0.001). The findings suggest that information plays a key role in shaping pro-environmental behaviors. Particularly, Syed-Abdullah (2024) demonstrated that education positively influences responsible and environmentally friendly behavior.

The reported standardized path coefficients for H1–H4 (β = 0.28–0.40) indicate significant but moderate impacts, aligning with standard values reported in complex behavioral models in sustainable tourism studies (Lee and Jan, 2019). For instance, recent meta-analysis studies (Fan et al., 2022) report similar effect sizes reflecting the inherent complexity of tourist behavior, where multiple personal, cognitive and external factors simultaneously influence behavioral intentions. Likewise, empirical research on digital engagement and virtual tourism frequently provides moderate effect sizes because of the indirect connections between virtual experiences and real-world behaviors (Rather et al., 2025; Schweiggart et al., 2025; Shah et al., 2025). Although these effects are moderate, they hold meaningful practical value in sustainability contexts – where even minor improvements in pro-environmental behavior across large populations of travelers can generate substantial ecological and social benefits. Therefore, the moderate effects observed here should be viewed as both realistic and impactful for designing scalable digital interventions that encourage responsible travel.

The mediation results depicted in Table 4 show that metaverse experiences are responsible for travel behavior through BDLA. The findings reveal that the metaverse experience influences cognitive processes that underlie sustainable decision-making. BDLA positively mediates the association between the metaverse experience and responsible travel behavior (β = 0.18, SE = 0.04, p = 0.002, 95% CI [0.10, 0.26]), supporting H5. This indicates a moderate but significant effect, suggesting BDLA is one among several cognitive mechanisms potentially involved in translating digital experiences into responsible behaviors. Given its relatively small effect size, other cognitive pathways, such as environmental empathy or moral reasoning, may also play complementary roles in linking virtual exposure to real-world sustainability actions. Exploring these parallel mechanisms could further refine the understanding of digital-to-behavioral transitions in tourism contexts. This resonates with previous studies that promote the investigation of additional cognitive mediators and outcomes in digital tourism settings (Hoang et al., 2025; Rather et al., 2025).

Table 4 depicts the moderation results. A simple slopes analysis was performed at high (+1 SD) and low (−1 SD) levels of leader conscientiousness. The results showed that visitor engagement had a stronger positive effect on responsible travel behavior at higher levels of leader conscientiousness. Specifically, at high levels of leader conscientiousness, the simple slope was 0.45 (p  < 0.001), with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of [0.38, 0.52]. In contrast, at low levels of leader conscientiousness, the effect remained positive but weaker, with a simple slope of 0.18 (p  < 0.01) and a 95% CI of [0.10, 0.26]. These findings support H6, confirming that leader conscientiousness moderates the relationship between visitor engagement and responsible travel behavior. To perform this analysis, the continuous variable (leader conscientiousness) was dichotomized using a median split procedure (Iacobucci et al., 2015). This method was justified as it provides clear interpretability of interaction effects, which is particularly valuable in practical tourism contexts where groups such as “high” versus “low” can inform targeted interventions (Shah et al., 2025). However, the approach may slightly reduce statistical precision compared to interaction-term modeling in SEM or regression. Therefore, the results were carefully cross-validated to ensure consistency and interpretive robustness.

Figure 2 illustrates the interaction plot of the moderating effect of high conscientiousness on the association between visitor engagement and responsible travel behavior.

Looking at how metaverse experiences, visitor well-being, engagement and environmental awareness impact responsible travel behavior helps us understand the core tourism mechanism through the lens of digital technology. By combining TPB with digital participation and psychological characteristics, this study sheds light on how modern visitors engage with ecotourism. The results indicate that metaverse exposure enhances cognitive engagement and promotes sustainable choices. The mediating effect of BDLA suggests a multi-stage influence mechanism, and leader conscientiousness enhances the impact of engagement on responsible travel intentions. These findings promote responsible tourism theory and practice.

Responsible tourism literature is expanded by applying the TPB to virtual engagement and tourist well-being. Perceptions of behavioral control, subjective standards and attitudes determine TPB behavioral intentions (Ajzen, 1991). However, this study uses technology and psychology to demonstrate that pre-trip virtual experiences promote responsible travel intentions via cognitive and emotional processes.

Specifically, the positive effect of metaverse experiences on responsible travel intentions (H1) confirms prior studies such as Tussyadiah et al. (2018), which demonstrated that digital simulations enhance environmental awareness. It also extends Guttentag (2010) by validating early conceptual insights with empirical data. The findings reveal that metaverse tourism simulation participants are more environmentally conscientious and prioritize sustainability while planning their visits. The association between visitor well-being and responsible travel (H2) supports Singh et al. (2023) and Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), who argued that wellness experiences promote sustainable attitudes. However, this study adds to the literature by showing how well-being enhances perceived behavioral control, reinforcing the TPB framework in digital contexts.

The results related to visitor engagement (H3) align with studies by Boley and McGehee (2014) and Qayyum et al. (2025a), which demonstrate that active participation enhances subjective norms and behavioral intent. This study builds on those insights by showing that digital forms of engagement, such as virtual volunteering or gamified participation, exert a comparable influence on sustainable choices. Similarly, in line with previous research (Cheng and Wu, 2015), environmental awareness (H4) positively influenced responsible travel behavior. However, our findings suggest that awareness alone may not be sufficient; it must be coupled with other psychological drivers such as cognitive engagement (via BDLA), which further strengthens the attitudinal and motivational aspects of TPB.

A key theoretical extension is the mediating role of BDLA (H5), which introduces adaptive learning as a psychological mechanism for translating virtual exposure into behavioral intentions. This addresses a gap in previous TPB-based tourism studies, which rarely considered individual-level cognitive adaptability (Dwivedi et al., 2022; Lin and McDonough, 2014). Prior literature discussed data-driven tourism (Cuomo et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2025) but did not empirically validate the mediating role of ambidextrous learning. These findings corroborate those of Yung and Khoo-Lattimore (2019), supporting that digital interactions shape cognitive processes, which influence sustainable decision-making. Thus, this study offers the first application of BDLA as a psychological mechanism in digital tourism.

Further, the moderating role of leader conscientiousness (H6) broadens existing leadership literature (Ballantyne et al., 2018) by showing how personality traits shape tourists’ responses to engagement. While previous studies have emphasized leadership behaviors, our findings highlight trait-based influences, thereby bridging the gap between organizational behavior and tourism psychology. These findings contribute to the literature by highlighting leader conscientiousness as a moderator between sustainability and visitor engagement. This study extends organizational leadership research to the tourism sector by showing that conscientious executives engage tourists better. Further widening psychological ideas in tourism research, the moderating effect suggests that personal traits affect passenger acceptance of sustainability messages.

While the metaverse offers promising opportunities for pre-travel learning and awareness, its effectiveness in sustaining long-term behavioral change remains uncertain. Over-reliance on simulated experiences might lead to a feeling of “virtual moral satisfaction,” when tourists feel like they are doing the right thing for the environment without actually doing anything about it. Consequently, further research should evaluate whether immersive simulations actually modify consumption behaviors or only reinforce transient beliefs.

The findings offer actionable strategies for policymakers, digital experience designers and tourism operators for promoting responsible travel. First, integrating metaverse experiences into tourism offerings can raise environmental awareness and influence travel decisions even before the trip. This is particularly effective for tech-savvy segments such as Gen Z and Millennials, who are more likely to engage with virtual storytelling and immersive simulations.

Second, tourism organizations should promote wellness-focused travel – such as eco-retreats, nature therapy and mindfulness tours – which align sustainability goals with visitor well-being. These experiences not only boost mental health but also increase tourists’ readiness to adopt sustainable practices. Third, stakeholders should enhance visitor engagement by offering participatory programs such as digital conservation campaigns, citizen science projects or virtual volunteering. Active involvement creates a sense of responsibility and encourages post-visit behavioral change.

Fourth, digital platforms should use big data and AI to offer personalized eco-travel suggestions. Tourism firms should participate in data-driven educational programs, as BDLA provides valuable practical insights. For example, tourists with higher BDLA can be shown interactive dashboards illustrating their carbon footprint or given gamified sustainability challenges tailored to their learning preferences.

Finally, leadership development is crucial. Tour operators, community leaders and influencers should receive sustainability training focused on persuasive communication, behavioral psychology and environmental ethics. These efforts are significant in digital tourism, where influencers significantly shape sustainability norms.

Table 5 presents the study’s conclusions and key implications.

Although the research confirmed most predictions, certain outcomes require further study. Unexpectedly, metaverse exposure and engagement affected conscientious vacationing more than environmental awareness. Prior research demonstrates that cognitive engagement, or the ability to deal with BDLA, predicts responsible tourism choices more than environmental knowledge (Miller et al., 2010). This illustrates that awareness is not enough; contact and experience are essential for applying knowledge.

Furthermore, the stronger-than-expected effect of leader conscientiousness was observed. Conscientious people had higher sustainability commitments despite engagement efforts, whereas unconscientious people had weaker ones. This highlights the importance of psychological congruence between message and messenger, suggesting that leadership credibility and authenticity matter more than content alone. It also underscores the growing psychological influence of digital leadership in tourism contexts. In the metaverse and on social media, such leaders serve as symbolic referents, shaping subjective norms. This suggests that the credibility, authenticity and moral consistency of digital influencers may outweigh the informational quality of sustainability messages, warranting further exploration in AI-mediated and virtual leadership environments.

Another surprise was that ambidexterity, not high data capacity, caused metaverse exposure. Both ideas were essential, but acquiring ambidexterity had a greater indirect impact, demonstrating that adaptability is crucial for sustainability choices. This builds up for the future research directions discussed in the following section.

Despite having significant contributions, this study has some limitations. As the sample primarily comprised digitally engaged travelers from developed regions (e.g. North America and Europe), it may have overrepresented tech-savvy participants familiar with the metaverse and data-driven tourism platforms. Consequently, the findings may not fully generalize to travelers from developing regions or those with lower digital literacy. Despite the promise of metaverse platforms in promoting responsible travel, disparities in access to digital infrastructure and literacy may limit their reach, particularly in developing regions (Scheerder et al., 2017). This “digital divide” poses a barrier to equitable engagement in virtual tourism experiences and may affect the generalizability of findings.

Although this study theoretically positions BDLA and visitor well-being as mechanisms that enhance perceived behavioral control within the TPB framework, prior empirical tourism research has not extensively validated these specific construct-to-dimension mappings. This conception should be viewed as a theoretically informed extension rather than a definitive empirical categorization. Future studies are encouraged to test alternative TPB operationalizations, compare competing model specifications and examine whether BDLA and visitor well-being function more strongly as attitudinal, control-based or hybrid mechanisms across different tourism contexts.

Future research with a bigger sample size, including visitors with lesser digital literacy, age and cultural context, should assess the generalizability of the findings. Methodologically, longitudinal or experimental designs are recommended to capture sustained behavioral change and establish causal pathways between digital exposure, cognitive processing and sustainable behavior. Comparative cross-cultural studies could also reveal how digital literacy, cultural values and socioeconomic context moderate these effects.

Future research could also examine how metaverse experiences such as gamification, interactive tales and social VR affect eco-friendly behavior. Additionally, future studies may examine how openness to experience and social responsibility affect responsible travel behaviors.