This study aims to examine how consumer perceptions of femvertising, or advertising that promotes gender equality and women’s empowerment, affect consumers’ intentions to make purchases. In addition, it examines how favourable opinions towards femvertising and consumers’ purchase intentions are strengthened by positive electronic word of mouth (eWOM).
To understand the effectiveness of femvertising on purchase intention, the study collected survey responses from Indian respondents in a sociocultural context shaped by both deeply ingrained patriarchal traditions and emerging progressive mindsets. To analyse the data and investigate the relationships among attitudes towards femvertising, eWOM and purchase intention, structural equation modelling was used.
Positive attitudes towards femvertising significantly impact purchase intentions. Moreover, positive electronic word-of-mouth plays a mediating role in this relationship, suggesting that consumers who identify with feminist advertising are more likely to spread positive messages, which, in turn, affect their purchasing behaviour.
Empirical evidence suggests that genuine, authentic feminist communication, aligned with a brand’s corporate image, can complement consumer interest, trust and influence, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of gender-sensitive advertising. When brands incorporate feminist ideologies into their messaging in a productive way, they can establish long-term relationships with socially responsible consumers and, over time, build loyalty.
This present work contributes to the interdisciplinary discourse on gender studies and marketing by theorising femvertising as a marketing strategy through an empirical-based study. Brands aim to incorporate these socially conscious elements into their advertising strategies.
Introduction
The role of gender representation in advertising has been widely researched over the past decades, yet its implications remain less theorised in the marketing literature (Cheng, 1997; Paek et al., 2011). In the modern world, brands are facing increasing pressure to express their commitment to gender equality and support the social issues and gender inequalities that persist, as consumers become more socially conscious (Hanel and Basils, 2023). Gender is an underlying tenet of consumer segmentation in marketing, guiding the selection of target consumer groups (Cornwall, 2007). Gender depictions in advertising reflect prevailing social norms and actively shape how consumers perceive brands and form purchase-related outcomes, including brand image and buying behaviour (Ford and LaTour, 1996). Advertising is becoming an increasingly prevalent means for brands to show their support for social causes, their commitment to social responsibility and their alignment with progressive society values (Vredenburg et al., 2020; Sobande, 2020). As a result, advertising is no longer a promotional tool but a means to disseminate awareness about social causes, empowering messages to women through a non-ideological, non-partisan and democratic socio-political lens (Banet-Weiser, 2018; Iyer and Dani, 2025).
According to a growing body of research, women’s representation in advertising has changed significantly over the past decade (Chen, 2013; Gill, 2007). This shift is possible due to contemporary consumer culture, where the emergence of “feminine modernity” established consumption as a means for women to engage in public life and create identities (Felski, 1995; Featherstone, 2010). Hence, advertisers began focusing on the inequalities faced by women and used feminist messages in their marketing communications (Drake, 2017; Choi et al., 2020). This approach, known as femvertising, uses compelling, real-life narratives on women’s empowerment, promotes body positivity and challenges the stereotypical representations (Gurrieri et al., 2022). Brands have chosen to address women’s empowerment and feminism not only to establish an image of social consciousness and responsibility, but also to do something positive for society (Sen, 2023). Femvertising is defined as advertising that uses pro-female themes and representations to empower women (SheKnows, 2014). Femvertising combines feminist values with commercial goals (Manohar and Puttaswamy, 2024). Femvertising highlights gender inequalities and promotes empowerment, challenging sexist stereotypes and reshaping consumer perceptions; it has been shown to positively influence brand evaluation and purchase intention across markets (Pérez and Gutiérrez, 2017; Teng et al., 2021; Gomez-Borquez et al., 2024).
In relatively gender-equal cultures such as Iceland, Finland, Norway, the UK and New Zealand, the Gender Gap Index clearly indicates that feminist advertising may be more acceptable (World Economic Forum, 2025; Sternadori and Abitbol, 2019). But in India, where institutional patriarchy continues to dictate gender standards, it is important to examine how consumers respond to such women-empowering advertising (Chatterjee, 2000; Ghoshal and Belk, 2019). While patriarchal norms upheld by family, culture and the media normalise feminine sacrifice and submissiveness, customs like dowries and strict gender roles institutionalise women’s subordinate status (Chatterjee, 2000; Kandiyoti, 1988; Menon, 2012; Pujari and Akhtar, 2023). Despite globalisation and increasing claims of liberal and progressive values, patriarchal attitudes often persist in subtle forms, reflected in everyday behaviours and social practices that continue to reinforce gender hierarchies (Banet-Weiser, 2018). This leads to a dichotomy where conventional patriarchal expectations coexist with progressive ideals (Mohanty, 2003; Hassan et al., 2022). Consumers’ reactions to feminist advertising may vary due to this conflict, ranging from support for gender equality to opposition rooted in conventional standards. Given India’s immense socio-cultural diversity, embodied in the proverb “Kos-kos par badle paani, chaar kos par baani”, which means that, like the flavour of water, the language spoken in India varies every few kilometres (Narayan, 2017), and enduring gender inequality, it is imperative to comprehend femvertising in the Indian context (India ranks 131 out of 148 nations in the Global Gender Gap Index, World Economic Forum, 2025).
Femvertising elicits favourable emotional reactions, especially among women who perceive these messages as empowering, and these favourable emotions have a significant impact on brand perceptions and purchase intentions (Mattila and Enz, 2002; Abitbol and Sternadori, 2019a, 2019b). A favourable attitude towards femvertising is also believed to increase consumers’ purchase intention. (Kapoor and Munjal, 2019; Um, 2021). Femvertising also promote favourable attitudes towards brands and encourages positive electronic word-of-mouth, particularly through social media platforms, as these advertisements are usually published online (Becker-Herby, 2016a, 2016b; Champlin et al., 2019; Drake, 2017; Zoli et al., 2023).
Drawing on prior research, the study reveals a mediated relationship among consumers’ attitudes towards femvertising, the potential positive word-of-mouth (e-WOM) following exposure to a femvertising advertisement or learning about it, and subsequent purchase intentions (Waqar et al., 2024). Although eWOM has been shown to be a behavioural result of brand attitude in general consumer contexts (Saidani et al., 2023; Chu and Kim, 2011), no research has specifically examined whether positive attitudes towards femvertising predict eWOM intention in a high-patriarchal scenario like India, where identifying as a feminist is often a taboo (Hassan et al., 2022).
Despite growing research on femvertising, the process through which favourable attitudes towards feminist advertising translate into positive electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) remains underexplored. Positive eWOM is a key mechanism connecting femvertising to purchase intention by extending the persuasive impact of advertisements beyond initial exposure (Um, 2021). However, its mediating role in the attitude-behaviour relationship has received limited attention in femvertising research (Gabrina and Gayatri, 2023). This study addresses this gap by examining how attitudes towards femvertising influence positive eWOM intention and subsequent purchase intention in the Indian context.
The limited applicability of social identity theory (SIT) in collectivist and patriarchal settings constitutes a significant theoretical gap in its application to femvertising, as it was originally developed in low-patriarchy Western cultural settings. It does not adequately theorise how identity expression is constrained by perceived social risk in collectivist and patriarchal societies. Due to perceived social risk and fear of social rejection, positive attitudes towards feminist advertising may not easily translate into purchasing behaviour in India, where feminist self-identification and considering oneself as a feminist is still a taboo and taken negatively (Bearden et al., 1989; Hofstede, 2001; Mandel et al., 2017; Tajfel and Turner, 1986). In this context, positive eWOM from trusted peers functions as validation, providing social proof that brands promoting social causes such as feminism and women’s empowerment are favoured by them and there is no need to suppress the feminist identity (attitude-to-behaviour pathway) (Bearden et al., 1989; Mandel et al., 2017). Femvertising-related eWOM is identity-expressive, showing feminist identification and ideological association, in contrast to traditional product-review eWOM, which emphasises useful product information (Chu and Kim, 2011; Serra-Cantallops et al., 2020; Wang and Rodgers, 2011). In India’s patriarchal context, publicly sharing femvertising content signals feminist values and social identity, making it distinct from routine brand advocacy. Positive eWOM intention is therefore conceptualised in this study as a distinct behavioural outcome that is directly impacted by attitudes towards femvertising.
To close this gap, the current study examines the association between attitudes towards femvertising and consumer purchase intention in Eastern India, a region where dialectical tensions between urban progressivism and rural patriarchy persist and have not previously been the focus of femvertising research. Although this study does not directly examine the brand’s credibility and authority in feminist marketing communication, consumers’ evaluative responses shape their attitudes towards femvertising, particularly in ways that reflect these concepts. According to earlier studies (MacKenzie et al., 1986; Goldsmith et al., 2000; Um, 2021), authenticity and credibility improve attitudes, which in turn influence eWOM and purchase intention. As a result, this study uses attitudes towards femvertising to capture these impressions and examines how they affect behavioural outcomes. These positive attitudes generate eWOM advocacy and purchase intention, the two outcomes that determine purchase decision for a brand. No prior study has directly tested whether positive attitudes towards femvertising predict eWOM intention in a high-patriarchy setting, or whether eWOM mediates the attitude-to-purchase relationship where feminist identification carries social cost. This study addresses both gaps by testing a mediation model in Eastern India, where eWOM serves as a normative legitimisation, mediating SIT’s identity congruence prediction when direct attitude-to-behaviour conversion is attenuated by perceived social risk (Ellemers et al., 2012).
Research questions framed
What is the direct impact of a consumer’s attitude towards femvertising on their purchase intention in the Indian context?
What is the impact of a consumer’s attitude towards femvertising on their likelihood to engage in positive electronic word-of-mouth (e-WOM)?
Does positive e-WOM mediate the relationship between attitude towards femvertising and consumer purchase intention?
Literature review
The advertising landscape is transforming every day, driven by technological innovation and new ways to reshape the relationship between brands and consumers. Historically, advertising representations have reflected and reinforced prevailing societal norms regarding gender. Men were typically portrayed as powerful, career-oriented, while women were depicted as submissive, dependent and confined to domestic roles (Singh and Pathak, 2023; Eagly and Wood, 2013). In India, these representations have been shaped by patriarchal social structures that have long positioned women primarily within the household and defined their social value through domestic labour and familial obligation. Over time; however, a discernible shift has occurred in advertising narratives, both globally and in India. The rise of socially conscious, values-driven consumers who favour brands that promote social causes led to this representational change (Cone Communications, 2017; Edelman et al., 2018). Hence, brands have evolved their communication strategies to focus on values-based messaging and emotional branding, aiming to build long-lasting customer relationships. As a result, contemporary advertising, through messages that resonate with consumers’ daily lives, aims to influence brand perception, foster emotional engagement and cultivate enduring customer loyalty, while also promoting products.
Within this evolving landscape, femvertising has emerged as an innovative marketing communication that foregrounds feminist principles, challenging gender stereotypes, promoting body positivity and positioning women as empowered individuals with autonomy and social influence rather than as passive objects of the commercial gaze (Sternadori and Abitbol, 2019; Drake, 2017; Gill, 2007; Banet-Weiser, 2018). By incorporating progressive social principles into brand storylines, femvertising appeals to consumers of all genders rather than just women as a demographic group. Femvertising is therefore an inclusive marketing strategy that goes beyond feminist themes. It has garnered significant scholarly and public attention for its depiction of women in empowering roles and for reducing gender-based stereotypes (Drake, 2017; Gill, 2007; Banet-Weiser, 2018).
Attitude towards femvertising is an individual’s orientation towards feminist advertising that supports women’s empowerment and feminist messages. Positive attitudes towards femvertising have a substantial effect on consumer behavioural outcomes, such as brand attitude, purchase intention and positive electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) intention, according to recent research (Champlin et al., 2019; Gabrina and Gayatri, 2023; Martínez-Aguirre et al., 2025). Research suggests that femvertising can elicit favourable consumer reactions, particularly through positive eWOM on digital platforms (Waqar et al., 2024). Consumer involvement and purchasing behaviour are further strengthened by online content that is perceived as interactive and educational (Alalwan, 2018). By bridging attitudinal engagement and behavioural commitment, eWOM is a crucial mechanism that connects advertising attitudes to purchase intention (Cheung et al., 2008; Chu and Kim, 2011; Reichelt et al., 2014). Research indicates that eWOM, especially among Generation Z and developing market consumers, has a direct and indirect impact on purchase intention through brand image, perceived quality and consumer trust (Natalia and Aprillia, 2025; Sudaryanto et al., 2025). In the Indian digital consumer market, Roy et al. (2021) confirm this quality-over-volume dynamic, demonstrating that effective use of eWOM positively affects purchase intention for online buyers, while Puspadini et al. (2025) provide further evidence of partial eWOM mediation in the cosmetics category, collectively establishing that the eWOM-mediated purchase pathway is empirically generalisable to Indian consumer markets and operates through trust and credibility rather than informational saturation conducted in both Generation Z and Indian consumer markets (Puspadini et al., 2025; Roy et al., 2021).
While previous investigations have examined how consumers respond to femvertising, several gaps remain. Firstly, according to Sternadori and Abitbol (2019), Kapoor and Munjal (2017), and Kassem et al. (2024), there is conflicting evidence regarding the relationship between favourable attitudes towards femvertising and purchase intentions. Femvertising may be conditional, as it promotes sharing behaviour without necessarily driving purchase intent (Kapoor and Munjal, 2017). Notwithstanding contrasting findings, the majority of studies conducted in various settings, such as Sternadori and Abitbol (2019) in the USA, Kassem et al. (2024) in Egypt and Gabrina and Gayatri (2023) in Indonesia, find a positive correlation between purchase intention and attitude towards femvertising, especially among consumers who strongly identify as feminists. Positive sentiments towards femvertising are therefore anticipated to translate into purchase intention, as individuals with a feminist stance increasingly see brands’ support for gender equality as a sign of doing good for society (Erdem and Swait, 2004) in the Indian context.
Secondly, although digital engagement plays a major role, little is known about how eWOM mediates the conversion of favourable views about a brand that promotes femvertising into purchase intentions (Cheung et al., 2008; Chu and Kim, 2011). As most femvertising advertisements are disseminated through digital platforms, their circulation in online spaces is central to their impact, yet this dimension has been largely overlooked in most femvertising research. Also, Itaul Masarroh et al. (2025) corroborate the conceptualisation of eWOM as identity- and value-expressive communication by showing that it is impacted by both intrinsic and extrinsic motives, with brand engagement impacting the intensity of advocacy behaviour. Advertising messages that resonate with consumers on an emotional and ideological level are more likely to be amplified through digital networks, thereby increasing brand recognition and perceptions of social responsibility (Berger, 2014). However, little is known about how such identity-expressive eWOM links attitudes regarding femvertising with purchase intention (Gabrina and Gayatri, 2023).
Consumers’ views on feminist advertising as personally relevant and identity-affirming are influenced by ideological orientation, which affects the conversion of these views into eWOM and purchase behaviour. Therefore, this study investigates positive electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) as a mediator that links favourable sentiments towards femvertising to purchase behaviour. Electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM), in which consumers exchange identity- and value-congruent advertising content within digital networks, has a major role in mediating the success of femvertising (Banet-Weiser, 2018; Berger, 2014; Henning-Thurau, 2004). By converting positive thoughts into advocacy behaviour and boosting purchase intention, positive eWOM increases the persuasive power of feminist advertising (Um, 2021). No prior study has directly tested the attitudes towards femvertising and eWOM in a high-patriarchy setup; eWOM, therefore, serves as a meaningful signal of identity commitment. A theoretical gap remains in the application of SIT to femvertising: developed in low-patriarchy Western contexts, the idea does not adequately account for how identifying as feminist and expressing it through brand consumption may mitigate perceived social risk. To avoid social rejection from family and community networks, people in collectivist and patriarchal societies frequently control behaviours that indicate contested identities (Tajfel and Turner, 1986; Markus and Kitayama, 1991; Hofstede, 2001). Therefore, the expected perceived social risk of openly adopting such identities may diminish the direct attitude–behaviour relationship, even when consumers have positive attitudes towards feminist messaging (Bearden, Netemeyer, and Teel, 1989; Mandel, Rucker, Levav, and Galinsky, 2017).
It is based on this that the present study suggests a new conceptual framework that combines two different lines of research, i.e. the strictly recorded persuasive power of social media-based e-WOM (Alalwan, 2018) and the newly emerging evidence on the effectiveness of feminist marketing based on the use of femvertising as an innovative marketing communication (Um, 2021). In an attempt to bridge this gap, this study looks at customers in urban and semi-urban Eastern India, a sociocultural setting where patriarchal and progressive ideas coexist (Patricia Uberoi, 2006). By investigating the relationship between attitudes towards femvertising and purchase intention, the study situates the analysis within the attitude–intention framework and empirically advances a neglected area of femvertising research amid ongoing discussions about the validity and impacts of empowerment-based advertising (Gabrina and Gayatri, 2023). Therefore, the paper aims to develop a model that determines how attitudes towards femvertising influence purchase intention, with positive e-WOM as the mediating variable, and, in doing so, adds a refined understanding of the effect of positive e-WOM in a non-Western setting.
Hypothesis framed
A positive attitude towards femvertising has a significant positive impact on consumer purchase intention.
A positive attitude towards femvertising has a significant positive impact on the intention to spread positive e-WOM.
Positive e-WOM significantly mediates the relationship between attitude towards femvertising and consumer purchase intention.
Methodology
The analysis was conducted using structural equation modelling software. A sample of consumers knowledgeable about both feminism and femvertising was identified through a screening conversation. Before data collection, participants received a briefing on femvertising advertisements. The conceptual briefing, which was provided only with the femvertising definition that was in line with Åkestam et al. (2017), along with two examples of well-known femvertising campaigns that were chosen for their cross-sectoral representativeness and previous use as femvertising exemplars in the literature (Dove’s Real Beauty campaign, Tata Tea advertisement), the participants were shown the advertisements. The research questionnaire was formulated using scales adapted from relevant literature sources. To measure attitudes towards the stimuli of femvertising, the study modified the advertisement rating scale used by Abitbol and Sternadori (2019a, 2019b), which demonstrated high reliability (α = 0.94). The measurement scale used was Wells’ (1964), which was adapted for the femvertising context by Abitbol and Sternadori (2019a, 2019b). They observed that feminist advertising elicits attitudinal responses, including social evaluations and personal emotional reactions, which are theoretically integrated into the idea of attitudes towards femvertising (see Appendix). A scale of positive eWOM was used, a modified version of Kim and Park (2013) (α = 0.91), and was measured. The purchase intention was measured using a scale developed by Duffett (2015) that assessed respondents’ inclination to purchase a product after reading an advertisement (α = 0.86). All constructs were measured using a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly Agree) to ensure consistent responses and subsequent statistical analysis.
Sample size
The sample size for this research was established according to the standard PLS-SEM method considered. Behavioural research has, according to Hair et al. (2017a, 2017b), recommendations for the minimum number of participants, which is ten times the largest number of structural paths affecting a single construct; thus, a minimum of 302 participants was assumed necessary for this study. To increase statistical power and reduce potential redundancy, an attempt was made to avoid this threshold and exceed it. The questionnaires distributed totalled 400, and 350 provided valid data, resulting in a response rate of 87.5%. Both male and female respondents were considered, as men can also adopt a feminist stance and have a favourable attitude towards femvertising (Digby, 2013).
Sampling technique
This study adopted a snowball sampling approach to collect views from respondents. The selection process began by identifying a few respondents who had either previously watched a femvertising advertisement or were at least familiar with the concept, based on specific criteria. The respondents’ views about feminism, or those who are aware of feminism-based advertising. Responses have also been collected from males of the same gender. The cultural and social dimensions of attitudes towards femvertising vary considerably in the male population (Çevik Ergin and Aleksandrova, 2024). Although the idea of empowering women through advertising in femvertising aims to support the notion of female empowerment, it still elicits mixed or polarised responses among men, influenced by their cultural backgrounds, political beliefs and personal ideological priorities (Teng et al., 2021).
Method
The analysis begins with an evaluation of the measurement model. The measurement model demonstrates the relationship between the latent constructs and their observed indicators, reflecting construct validity – including convergent and discriminant validity – as well as internal consistency reliability. The factor loadings, composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) are also examined. Thereafter, the inner structural model was analysed to test the hypothesised relationships, with particular emphasis on the significance of path coefficients. The measurement model was previously tested to ensure the construct’s robustness before the structural model was tested. Convergent validity was determined through the determination of AVE and CR. This aligns with the requirements stipulated by Hair et al. (2017a, 2017b), who specified that all constructs met the necessary cut-offs of CR > 0.70 and AVE > 0.50, which validates satisfactory convergent validity. The heterotrait-monotrait method (HTMT) ratio of correlations was also used to test discriminant validity (Henseler et al., 2015). It was found that all HTMTs were below the conservative cut-off point of 0.90 (Hair et al., 2017a, 2017b), supporting discriminant validity (see Table 3). Once the measurement model is validated, the structural model was also studied. The importance of hypothesised paths was estimated using a bootstrapping procedure with 5,000 resamples, which facilitated the calculation of robust standard errors and t-statistics.
An evaluation of a measurement model is a formal exploration of the trustworthiness and legitimacy of construct-level variables. Figure 1 shows the model with positive e-WOM intention as mediator, attitude towards femvertising as independent variable and consumer purchase intention as dependent variable (see Figure 1). According to Hair et al. (2017a, 2017b), the process focuses on three essential criteria: convergent validity, internal consistency and discriminant validity. The measurement model (Table 1) demonstrates acceptable reliability and validity, with item loadings falling within the desirable range (0.70–0.83), thereby meeting the minimum criterion. In addition, CR is greater than 0.70 in all constructs: 0.753 for attitude towards femvertising, 0.874 for consumer purchase intention and 0.884 for positive e-WOM intention, implying a high level of internal consistency. Moreover, the AVE values exceed 0.50, indicating convergent validity. Altogether, the constructs meet the recommended criteria, supporting the adequacy of the measurement model.
The conceptual model contains 3 main variables, attitude towards femvertising, positive e-WOM, and consumer purchase intention. Attitude towards femvertising connects directly to consumer purchase intention and also leads to positive e-WOM. Positive e-WOM then leads to consumer purchase intention, forming an indirect pathway. Attitude towards femvertising connects to 5 indicators labeled A T F E M 1, A T F E M 2, A T F E M 3, A T F E M 4, and F S 1. Positive e-WOM connects to 4 indicators labeled P S E W O M 1, P S E W O M 2, P S E W O M 3, and P S E W O M 4. Consumer purchase intention connects to 4 indicators labeled C P I 1, C P I 2, C P I 3, and C P I 4. All indicator connections extend outward from their respective variables.PLS-SEM model for the study variables
The conceptual model contains 3 main variables, attitude towards femvertising, positive e-WOM, and consumer purchase intention. Attitude towards femvertising connects directly to consumer purchase intention and also leads to positive e-WOM. Positive e-WOM then leads to consumer purchase intention, forming an indirect pathway. Attitude towards femvertising connects to 5 indicators labeled A T F E M 1, A T F E M 2, A T F E M 3, A T F E M 4, and F S 1. Positive e-WOM connects to 4 indicators labeled P S E W O M 1, P S E W O M 2, P S E W O M 3, and P S E W O M 4. Consumer purchase intention connects to 4 indicators labeled C P I 1, C P I 2, C P I 3, and C P I 4. All indicator connections extend outward from their respective variables.PLS-SEM model for the study variables
Reliability and validity of the measurement model
| Construct and items | Loading | CR | AVE |
|---|---|---|---|
| Attitude towards femvertising | 0.753 | 0.52 | |
| ATFEM1 | 0.70 | ||
| ATFEM2 | 0.72 | ||
| ATFEM3 | 0.74 | ||
| ATFEM4 | 0.70 | ||
| Consumer purchase intention | 0.874 | 0.634 | |
| CPI1 | 0.78 | ||
| CPI2 | 0.80 | ||
| CPI3 | 0.79 | ||
| CPI4 | 0.80 | ||
| Positive e-WOM intention | 0.884 | 0.654 | |
| PSEWOM1 | 0.82 | ||
| PSEWOM2 | 0.78 | ||
| PSEWOM3 | 0.83 | ||
| PSEWOM4 | 0.80 |
In accordance with the results obtained by Henseler et al. (2015), the discriminant validity may be deftly proclaimed in case the HTMT value of any of the analysed constructs is less than 0.90 or 0.85. The current matrix indicates that all the thresholds of the HTMTs are less than 0.90, indicating adequate discriminant validity among all pairs of constructs (see Table 2).
Discriminant validity by hetereotrait–monotrait (HTMT)
| Constructs | ATFEM | CPI | PSEWOM |
|---|---|---|---|
| ATFEM | 0.656 | 0.697 | |
| CPI | 0.656 | 0.693 | |
| PSEWOM | 0.697 | 0.693 |
According to the results of the VIF value analyses (Table 3), there is no indication of multiple correlations, as all observed values are far below the traditional limit of 3.3 provided by Hair et al. (2017a, 2017b). The construct attitude towards femvertising is related to consumer purchase intention, with coefficients that have VIFs of 1.468 and positive e-WOM, which has a VIF of 1.000. In addition, positive e-WOM is predicted by the factors of attitude towards femvertising, also with a VIF of 1.000. Taken together, the findings demonstrate that the constructs clarify the opposing aspects of the model and provide distinctive explanatory power, thereby enhancing both the strength and interpretability of the structural relationships.
VIF values for collinearity assessment
| Construct | Indicator | VIF value |
|---|---|---|
| Attitude towards femvertising | ATFEM1 | 1.560 |
| ATFEM2 | 1.591 | |
| ATFEM3 | 1.892 | |
| ATFEM4 | 1.702 | |
| Consumer purchase intention | CPI1 | 2.006 |
| CPI2 | 2.070 | |
| CPI3 | 2.008 | |
| CPI4 | 2.134 | |
| Positive e-WOM | PSEWOM1 | 2.121 |
| PSEWOM2 | 1.950 | |
| PSEWOM3 | 2.265 | |
| PSEWOM4 | 2.188 |
The mediation analysis table (Table 4) indicates that positive eWOM partially mediates the connection between attitude towards femvertising and consumer purchase intention. Both the direct effect (β = 0.323, p < 0.001) and the indirect effect via positive e-WOM (β = 0.240, p < 0.001) are statistically significant, supporting partial mediation. The findings indicate that attitude towards femvertising not only directly determines purchase intention but also has an indirect effect on increasing positive eWOM.
Mediation analysis table
| Path | Direct effect | Indirect effect | Total effect | Direct effect p-value | Indirect effect p-value | Mediation type |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Attitude towards femvertising → positive eWOM → consumer purchase intention | 0.323 | 0.240 | 0.563 | 0.000 | 0.000 | Partial mediation |
| Attitude towards femvertising → positive eWOM | 0.565 | – | 0.565 | 0.000 | – | – |
| Positive eWOM → consumer purchase intention | 0.424 | – | 0.424 | 0.000 | – | – |
According to the structural model analysis, the results indicate that Positive eWOM is an important partial mediator between Attitude towards Femvertising and Consumer Purchase Intention. The findings show that there is a significant direct effect of Attitude towards Femvertising on Positive eWOM (β = 0.565, p < 0.001) and Consumer Purchase Intention (β = 0.323, p < 0.001), whereas Positive eWOM has a direct impact on Consumer Purchase Intention (β = 0.424, p < 0.001). Importantly, the indirect effect via Positive eWOM is substantial and statistically significant (0.240, p < 0.001), contributing a significant signal to the overall effect (0.563). This trend of substantial direct and indirect influences confirms that Positive eWOM partially mediates the relationship, meaning that attitudes towards femvertising simultaneously cause positive attitudes and purchase intentions by stimulating positive electronic word-of-mouth.
Results and discussions
The findings demonstrate that positive eWOM and purchase intention are strongly influenced by an appreciative attitude towards femvertising. Furthermore, positive eWOM partially mediates this relationship (indirect β = 0.240, p < 0.001), indicating that favourable femvertising attitudes activate not only direct purchase disposition but also the intention to advocate for feminist brands within one’s peer network Chu and Kim, 2011. A study by Serra-Cantallops et al. (2020) found that favourable emotional responses to feminist-based brand communication are also associated with a favourable attitude and purchase intention, which aligns with the findings of this study, including the noteworthy trajectories of eWOM and consumer purchase intention.
These results are consistent with SIT, which contends that identity-congruent advertising enhances advocacy behaviour and group identification. The results of the study indicate that consumers who identify as feminists are often empowered women, consistent with the self-congruence theory, which predicts that they are more likely to value advertisements that reflect their self-perceptions. Also, these consumers have a favourable attitude towards femvertising advertisements, hence, femvertising influences both purchase intention and eWOM, with eWOM having a more powerful, legitimising effect. Femvertising supports eWOM as an identity-expressive behaviour and validates self-concept for consumers who identify as feminists. Identity alignment enhances group identification and advocacy (Serra-Cantallops et al., 2020), in line with SIT (Tajfel and Turner, 1986) and eWOM serves as a bridge when there is perceived social risk associated with identifying as feminist or favouring consumption from brands that support feminist ideals and beliefs in their advertisement thereby facilitating the conversion of positive attitudes into purchase intention in patriarchal contexts like India, where publicly endorsing feminist brands may involve social risk (Toller et al., 2004). Also, both men’s and women’s genuine support for feminism frequently clashes with the readiness to identify as a feminist, and this largely happens in a patriarchal situation that exists in India (Toller et al., 2004). Hence, eWOM strengthens the femvertising effectiveness for consumers having a favourable attitude towards femvertising in the Indian context, which is a climacteric finding as (Sternadori and Abitbol, 2019; Kassem et al., 2024) feminist ideals and individuals supporting feminism frequently clash with long-standing patriarchal standards (Ghoshal and Belk, 2019).
The cultural and ideological specificity of the Indian context shapes these dynamics in consequential ways. Gender representations in advertising remain consistently stereotypical across national contexts, reflecting entrenched sociocultural norms even in markets where gender equality has nominally advanced (Matthes et al., 2016; Eisend, 2010; Holbrook and Batra, 1987). Femvertising is an innovative shift from traditional portrayals of women’s roles in a patriarchal context like India. The femvertising literature did not sufficiently examine how shifting portrayals of women in advertising are perceived in highly patriarchal nations; therefore, the findings propose that femvertising effectiveness in India varies based on ideological inclinations, feminist consciousness and exposure to progressive discourse (Sternadori and Abitbol, 2019).
The findings also demonstrate that brands that truly incorporate feminist values into their marketing communication strategy are perceived as more reliable, trustworthy and socially conscious, thereby enhancing brand advocacy and purchase intention among value-aligned consumer segments (Gabrina and Gayatri, 2023; Carvalho and Duarte, 2024). The strong correlation between attitude towards femvertising and eWOM (β = 0.565, p < 0.001) (Table 4) reflects a broader concept established in the corporate social responsibility literature that consumer perceptions of brand reputation are shaped not solely by product performance but by committing to social causes like feminism and women’s empowerment, which the brand supports and promotes (Pomering et al., 2013). Also, favourable attitudes towards femvertising can enhance brand recall and positive brand-related outcomes through eWOM. Therefore, when femvertising is perceived as authentic, consumers are more likely to share it within their social networks, amplifying brand recall and generating favourable outcomes, including improved brand credibility and social responsibility perceptions of femvertising effectiveness and its societal value proposition.
Conclusion and implications
The table (see Table 5) lists the conclusions and along with that the theoretical and managerial implications of the study.
Summary of findings and practical implications
| Conclusions | Theoretical and managerial implications |
|---|---|
| Favourable attitudes toward femvertising significantly enhance purchase intention and positive eWOM | This finding demonstrates the effectiveness of femvertising in shaping consumer behaviour in a patriarchal, non-Western context. Brands should adopt authentic, empowerment-oriented messaging that aligns with consumer values and ideologies regarding feminism and gender equality to strengthen consumer engagement and advocacy |
| Positive eWOM partially mediates the relationship between attitudes toward femvertising and purchase intention | The study establishes eWOM as a key mechanism linking attitudes toward feminist advertising with behavioural outcomes. Brands should create emotionally resonant and shareable advertisements, so that it enhances the forwarding intention of the advertisement, that encourage digital engagement and online consumer advocacy |
| Identity-congruent and authentic femvertising generates stronger consumer responses | The findings highlight the importance of identity congruence and authentic feminist messaging in enhancing the credibility and effectiveness of femvertising. Managers should avoid performative empowerment claims and ensure alignment between brand values, promoted causes and advertising messages. Promoting feminist ideals without a true organisational commitment to gender equality puts brands at risk of scepticism and charges of femwashing (use of feminist messaging in marketing without genuine organisational commitment to gender equality). also, managers should create shareable online content that amplifies eWOM and engages viewers, and ask for real-life experiences that resonate with the feminist messages in the advertisement. Also, the need to portray women as more powerful rather than merely decorative is crucial, as women are decisionmakers in most of their buying decisions. Sometimes, promoting feminist ideals without a true organisational commitment to gender equality puts brands at risk of scepticism and charges of femwashing, which can harm their reputation and business results |
| Femvertising promotes awareness of feminism and gender equality, alongside creating a unique brand image and enhancing buying intention | The study extends femvertising literature by integrating behavioural and sociocultural perspectives. Policymakers and organisations should encourage genuine gender-inclusive communication and socially responsible branding practices to support gender equality advocacy. Policy makers should ensure equal representation of women across all fields, including politics and STEM (science, technology, engineering and management), which are often viewed as areas where women are not assumed to excel |
This study adds to the femvertising literature by demonstrating that attitudes towards femvertising (ATFEM) affect purchase intention both directly and indirectly through positive eWOM. The findings suggest that eWOM is not merely an outcome of favourable attitudes, but also a normative validation mechanism that helps consumers overcome patriarchal social pressures in translating attitudes into purchase behaviour. Overall, the study extends femvertising research beyond its Western focus, provides one of the first empirical demonstrations of attitudes towards femvertising, eWOM, and purchase intention in a patriarchal non-Western market and establishes Eastern India as a theoretically significant setting for examining the limitations of feminist consumer behaviour theory. This will lay the groundwork for future cross-cultural, experimental and longitudinal studies that can further unravel the social and structural mechanisms through which femvertising produces its effects on society and shapes a distinctive brand image in consumers’ minds, thereby increasing brand recall and overall purchase intention.
The findings suggest that femvertising functions both as a behavioural driver and a social influence mechanism in Eastern India, where patriarchal and progressive values coexist. Positive attitudes towards femvertising not only increase purchase intention but also encourage positive eWOM, highlighting the role of consumer advocacy in amplifying campaign reach and effectiveness. The findings also support previous studies on the importance of authenticity in social issue advertising by demonstrating that authentic, empowerment-oriented and value-congruent messaging with strong brand–cause fit elicits positive consumer responses (Yoon et al., 2006; Pomering et al., 2013; Park et al., 2023a, 2023b).
From a management perspective, partial mediation of eWOM as an outcome suggests that brand managers must carefully allocate resources to an effective eWOM strategy for femvertising advertisements. Brands should invest not only in crafting creative and persuasive messages but also in creating shareable content, encouraging user-generated content and optimising campaigns for digital platforms with high levels of social interaction. And optimising campaigns for digital and mobile platforms where social interaction is most active (Henning-Thurau, 2004; Kozinets et al., 2010). Femvertising campaign success should therefore be assessed using a combination of traditional performance metrics and eWOM indicators, including engagement rates, sharing behaviour and sentiment. Empowerment messaging enhances purchase intention, as implied by the study’s results, when followed by eWOM amplification. Managers should incorporate femvertising into participatory corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Also, it is crucial for managers to ensure the cause promoted is authentic and aligns with the brand’s ideologies and values; otherwise, without genuine organisational commitment to gender equality, there may be accusations of femwashing, which can damage both the credibility of the femvertising message. Managers should ensure consistency between feminist messaging and internal practices, such as gender equity and inclusive workplace policies, while positioning femvertising as a long-term brand-building strategy that strengthens both consumer trust and brand equity among socially conscious audiences.
From a societal standpoint, femvertising strengthens community-level engagement and advocacy for gender equality by encouraging consumers who identify with such messages to actively share them within their networks (Serra-Cantallops et al., 2020). Also, the eWOM-driven spread of femvertising goes beyond brand results by advancing feminist narratives and helping normalise progressive gender views. Significantly, the study expands on Western-centric femvertising studies by showing that, when viewed as authentic and consistent with consumer values, empowerment-based advertising is nonetheless successful in culturally complex, high-patriarchal situations (Matthes et al., 2016; Carvalho and Duarte, 2024). Therefore, genuinely created femvertising can serve as a catalyst for progressive social change, generate awareness of gender equality and also serve as a marketing strategy.
Limitations and future research
Notwithstanding its contributions, the current study has several limitations. Firstly, the use of snowball sampling, a non-probability sampling technique, limits the external validity and generalisability of the findings to the broader Indian consumer population and may introduce selection bias, as respondents are likely to recruit participants with similar characteristics (Naderifar et al., 2017; Parker et al., 2019). As an outcome, the sample is biased towards Eastern Indian urban, educated, and digitally active and aware respondents who are more aware of and open to feminist messaging. The likelihood of social desirability bias may also be increased by this demographic concentration, especially in settings where openly articulated feminist opinions are more widely accepted.
Second, the study relied on self-report survey data combined with a conceptual briefing on femvertising prior to data collection. Although the briefing ensured a common understanding of the concept, it may have served as a priming mechanism, encouraging socially desirable responses and creating demand characteristics (Podsakoff et al., 2003). As a result, respondents may have overstated positive attitudes towards femvertising, eWOM and purchase intention (Fisher, 1993; Tourangeau and Yan, 2007). Future studies should incorporate implicit measures, behavioural indicators such as observed sharing or purchase behaviour, temporal separation between briefing and measurement and established social desirability scales, such as the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (Reynolds, 1982), to improve validity and triangulate findings.
Third, the data collected was not geographically representative, as it was collected only from Eastern India due to time and resource constraints. The found associations between attitude towards femvertising, eWOM and purchase intention may be inflated due to the underrepresentation of respondents who are less favourable towards femvertising, such as rural, less digitally active or anti-feminist consumers (Suich et al., 2022; Banet-Weiser, 2018). To increase generalisability, future studies should use stratified sampling across geographic and demographic categories.
In conclusion, despite including male respondents, the study did not examine moderating factors that could influence reactions to feminism-based advertising, such as political orientation, feminist self-identification or digital participation (Sternadori and Abitbol, 2019). Future studies should investigate cross-cultural comparisons in settings with different degrees of patriarchy, longitudinal designs that look at changes over time and experimental methods that examine the causal impacts of femvertising message authenticity and brand-cause fit. The emotional and cognitive processes that underlie consumer reactions to femvertising in changing gender-role contexts may also be better understood using qualitative techniques like focus groups or narrative analysis.
References
Appendix. Mapping of attitude towards femvertising items to the tripartite attitude components
The Attitude Towards Femvertising scale used in this study maps directly onto this tripartite architecture. The tripartite model of attitude (Breckler, 1984; Eagly and Chaiken, 1993), which describes attitudes as consisting of three interrelated components – the affective component (emotional reactions to the advertisement), the cognitive component (beliefs and evaluations about the advertisement) and the conative or normative component (behavioural intentions or perceived social outcomes associated with the advertisement) – is frequently used to measure attitudes toward advertising.
Two items (ATFEM1”Femvertising ads are heartwarming “and ATFEM3 “Femvertising ads make me feel good “) capture the affective dimension; one item (ATFEM2, reverse-coded” Femvertising ads are of little interest to me “) captures the cognitive-engagement dimension; and one item (ATFEM4”Femvertising ads help advance women’s empowerment and success in Indian society “) captures the normative-conative dimension – specifically, the consumer’s belief about the advertisement’s social efficacy in the Indian context. This distribution ensures that the scale captures the full attitudinal space relevant to femvertising evaluation, not merely emotional response.
