Analysis of socio-economic characteristics and physical condition of the slum environment in the inner city

Globally, the population of urban areas in developed, developing and underdeveloped nations has increased rapidly in the 20th century. The United Nations estimated in 2007 that roughly 3 billion people, or 50% of the world's population of 6.572 billion, resided in urban areas. This estimate is linked to one of the most significant reports on the global urban population increase [United Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), 2015]. It was further projected that by 2030, more than 61% of the world's population would reside in urban areas. The majority of this urban population growth based on the projection would occur in developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Urbanization has led to an enormous disparity in the availability of basic social amenities, sanitary facilities and decent and affordable housing in many developing countries. It is also characterized by uncontrolled population growth. In this light, a large number of people living in cities are compelled to live in conditions that are more appropriately characterized as slums (Abubakar and Aina, 2019; Adewale et al., 2020).

According to UN-Habitat (2013), living conditions in urban slums lack access to one or more of the following characteristics, namely – access to adequate sanitation; easy access to security of tenure that can prevent forced evictions; quality and affordable housing that can protect dwellers against extreme climate condition; access to adequately clean and safe municipal water at a reasonable cost; and adequate living area to accommodate no more than three persons in one room. It was further reported by the United Nations Human Settlement Program (UNHSP) (2003) that 43% of the people living in urban areas of developing nations were slum dwellers, compared to 60% in developed countries and 78.2% in less developed nations. According to these estimates, sub-Saharan Africa has the highest percentage of urban slum dwellers (71.9%) and is expected to continue to increase for the next 30 years. More than a billion people now reside in slums across the globe, and the number of people living in slums or conditions similar to them is increasing. This means that one in three urban residents are slum dwellers [United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2016]. The United Nations (2014) and United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs [United Nations Departments of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), 2018] noted that although the percentage of people residing in slum areas was declining in other parts of the world, it was however increasing in sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigeria, it was estimated in 2000 that about 70% of the urban population was living in slums. This estimation was reduced to about 50.2% in 2014 and later increased to about 53.9% in 2018 (Abubakar and Aina, 2019). Considering that 30% of urban dwellers live in slums in developing nations, the number of slum dwellers in Nigeria is comparatively large. In any case, according to submissions from different studies, the majority of Nigeria’s urban slums are found in the inner cities, where over 50% of the 80 million inhabitants live (Aduwo et al., 2017; Babadoye and Fakere, 2013; Dimuna and Omatsone, 2010).

According to Aribigbola et al. (2022), Slums are diverse in nature and each of the slums within the city suffers from varying levels of deprivation. The degree of deprivation may not only depend on the conditions that define a slum but also depend on how many of these conditions are prevalent within the household. UN-Habitat (2007) observed that households may suffer from one or more of the following conditions such as inadequate living space (more than three people living in a room that is at least four square meters); lack of access to clean, uncontaminated water; lack of access to sanitary facilities that separate human waste from human contact; and lack of durability in housing (the building must be on non-hazardous land and able to withstand climate extremes) as well as lack of security of tenure (protection by the state to ensure the unlawful eviction of inhabitants of homes). The living conditions of slum dwellers are deplorable in nature and are characterized by poor access to water, unsanitary living conditions, broken or nonexistent waste disposal systems, overcrowded and dilapidated habitation, insecurity of tenure and a high risk of serious health problems (Oladehinde et al., 2023a). Khan et al. (2015) added substandard housing or illegal and inadequate building structures as part of the attributes of slums. Pelling (2003) noted that slums are areas with excessive population density, social exclusion, hazardous environmental exposure, poverty, social deprivation, insecurity and limited access to facilities. These characteristics pose a threat to public safety and the environment and exacerbate social unrest. Studies from the literature have shown that slums are the product of multiple interrelated causes and are characterized by rapid urbanization brought on by rural-urban migration, urban poverty, insufficient plans for the development of urban housing, a lack of enforcement of planning laws and regulations as well as a lack of repair maintenance [United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS), 2003].

Previous studies have examined related issues in slums. These studies range from slum conditions (Makinde, 2012; Omole and Owoeye, 2011), slum formation (Owoeye and Omole, 2012; Yoade, 2019; Osore, 2019; Oladehinde et al., 2024a) and the relationship between slum dwellers and housing condition (Farinmade et al., 2021; Ogunleye, 2013; Omole, 2010; Agbor et al., 2016). While some of these studies have examined the physical conditions or characteristics of slum areas and factors influencing slum formation. Findings from these studies have shown that poor condition of the slum environment is a product of multiple interrelated factors such as rural-urban migration, insufficient plans for the development of urban housing, lack of enforcement of planning standards and lack of repairs and maintenance, however, it has not been established in the literature whether personal attributes can contribute to the poor condition of the slum area. Others have revealed that there is a strong relationship between socioeconomic lifestyle and the housing conditions in slum environments (Farinmade et al., 2021; Ogunleye, 2013). Despite the multiplicity of studies on slums, it has been observed that most of these studies do not holistically capture the physical conditions of the slum environment and their relationship with the socioeconomic attributes of the dwellers. Also, some of the studies were limited to housing conditions within the slum environment (Omole, 2010; Agbor et al., 2016). Housing alone cannot be used as the only basis for measuring the conditions/characteristics of the slum environment. Hence the need for this study. This study will fill the gap in the literature by considering other dimensions such as tenure security, sanitation facilities, water facilities and sufficient living spaces. Moreover, a recent study by Olayiwola and Ajala (2022) asserted that most studies on slums are more concerned with informal or shanty settlements while much attention has not been given to the core area of the inner city.

Apart from this, as a result of the challenges presented by slum growth and the need to improve the living conditions of slum dwellers, the sustainable development goal (SDG) 11 is focused on ensuring all, especially slum residents, have access to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and slum upgraded by 2030. To achieve this goal, there is a need to understand the level of prevalence of slum conditions as well as the socio-economic attributes of the urban slum dwellers with evidence from sub-Saharan Africa. There is also the need to empirically explain the socio-economic determinants of slum development in Nigeria. This is with the view of providing information that could be used to improve the living conditions of slum dwellers in Nigeria and other developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa. It is on this note that this study aims to examine the socio-economic determinants of slum development in the inner city of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, using Beere and Oje as a case study. Based on the aim, the specific objectives of this study are to assess socio-economic attributes of slum dwellers and the prevailing conditions of the slum environment, especially with reference to housing, sanitation facilities, water facilities, tenure security and sufficient living spaces as well as their relationships in the inner city of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, using Beere and Oje as a case study. To achieve this, the study provides answers to the following research questions:

The concept of the slum has been defined by different scholars [Fourchard, 2003; United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS), 2000; United Nations, 2014; Indymedia, 2008]. According to the United Nations (2014), slum was regarded as a run-down area of a city characterized by lack of tenure security, substandard housing and squalor. It was also referred to as areas that are yet to develop in relation to good planning and settlement (Fourchard, 2003). Lack of infrastructural facilities, low-cost housing, no planned layout and poor inhabitants were some of the attributes that were highlighted by Fourchard (2003). UNCHS (2000) defined slums as urban areas with high congestion, mostly occupied by squatters, marked by unsanitary, deteriorated buildings, poverty and social disorganization. In addition, the lack of housing units in the area led to overcrowding, unfavorable urban living conditions, inadequate or minimal infrastructure and services and even high rates of crime. United Nations (2014) noted that although the term “slum” originally referred to a housing area that was once relatively affluent but declined as the original residents moved on to newer and better parts of the city, it has since expanded to include the vast informal settlements found in developing country cities. Even though their characteristics differ depending on the location, the extremely poor and socially disadvantaged typically live there. Slum buildings can range from basic shacks to long-standing, well-kept buildings. According to Indymedia (2008), a lot of slum areas are thought to be breeding grounds for social problems like drug and alcohol addiction, high rates of mental illness, crime and suicide. Many developing nations have high disease rates because of unhygienic conditions, starvation and a lack of access to basic healthcare.

On the spatial types of slums, Agboola (1995) identified two types of slums in Nigerian cities – traditional and spontaneous slums. Traditional slums are primarily found in towns due to the deterioration of existing structures, whereas spontaneous slums are established by squatters on illegally acquired lands. Urban Leadership and Grigg (2010) further reclassified slums into declining areas and progressing settlements, which were then further reviewed and expanded. Declining areas included old city centre slums and new slum estates while progressing settlements were made up of squatter settlements and semi-legal subdivisions. Makinde (2012) listed recent slums, peripheral slums, slum estates and inner-city slums in addition to the categories mentioned above. According to Makinde (2012), an inner-city slum is one in which the original owners of well-established, centrally located residential areas leave for newer, healthier and more fashionable neighborhoods, causing the slum to deteriorate. Public housing estates and housing constructed by businesses or for the housing of industrial workers are both considered slum estates. Examples of the former include hostels that have seen social issues as a result of overcrowding and stressful living conditions, leaving residents susceptible to political exploitation and organized crime.

Recent slums are defined as newly developed slum neighborhoods that have similarities to consolidated informal settlements but are more recent and unconsolidated. Poorer, less durable materials, particularly in settlements where residents are uncertain about whether and for how long they will be allowed to stay before being evicted, express their newness. Shacks are likely to be very crudely constructed of recycled or very transient materials (such as straightened oil drums, used corrugated metal sheets, plastic and canvas sheets, cardboard cartons and discarded timber) where evictions are frequent or on sites where they are unlikely to be left alone. A peripheral slum is a slum located outside of a city. They are either divided or subdivided land that households have either paid for or entered into a rent-purchase agreement with the developer or landowner, or they are squatter settlements where households have encroached upon (usually public) land.

The impacts of slums on urban settings are enormous. According to Onweluzo (2017) and Nduka (2012), the impact of slums includes filthy environment, environmental pollution, increase in water and airborne disease, overcrowding, environmental decay, poor social well-being, inadequate availability of facilities and increase in the rate of deterioration of few available facilities amongst others. Onweluzo (2017) inserted that most of the buildings are erected anyhow, there are no signs of effective development control or regulation, poor water supply, constant traffic congestion and indescribable filth. Pawar and Mane (2013) added that slum environment affects different urban elements such as living standard of population, socio-economic status of the population and their general development progress. In the submission of Sufaira (2013), slums affect the literacy level, family income and general social status of the slum dwellers as they have deplorable and substandard living conditions. Iloerika-Okafor et al. (2023) stated that unhygienic water sources abound in slum locations which often bring about severe infectious diseases such as hepatitis and cholera. Slum environment as observed by Gurmit (2012) has negative effect on the health of the inhabitants and poor health conditions affect the total well-being of the individuals. This was further substantiated by Akinwale (2018) and Lawamson (2020) that urban slum dwellers are at a high risk of non-communicable diseases such as asthma, heart diseases, diabetes and mental health problems including anxiety, depression, insomnia and substance abuse. Iloerika-Okafor et al. (2023) discovered that slums have negative impacts on urban settings, including environmental issues (such as poor water quality, and poor waste among others), health issues (such as disease outbreaks, water-related deaths and maternal and child mortality), social issues (such as crime, drug abuse and teenage pregnancy), economic issues, among others.

Findings from existing literature revealed that numerous studies exist on urban slums in developed and developing countries. Most studies in developed countries have an extraordinary revival of interest in Slum clearance, upgrading and renewal (Collins and Shester, 2013; Johnson and Tashman, 2002; Rossi-Hansberg, Sarte, and Owens, 2010; Jones (2010), Kearns et al. (2019), Yelling (2000) while others were focused on housing demand in urban slum and informal settlement (Agostini, 2011; Kuffer, 2023). It was discovered in the study of Collins and Shester (2013) that slum clearance, upgrade and renewal have a sizable economic impact as it increases property values and income. It was further observed that the estimated effects on income, property values and population were positive and economically significant. This was further supported by the submission of Johnson and Tashman (2002) that investment in the renewal of urban slums often increases the property value of the area. As a result of continuous efforts in upgrading, clearing and renewing slum areas in most developed countries like the USA, Italy, United Kingdom and other parts of Europe, Kuffer (2023) inserted that the level of proliferation, and extent of slums in developed countries are smaller compared to Africa, Asia or Latin America. This is why the problem of slums is usually considered a problem in developing countries.

A number of studies on issues relating to slums with a focus on developing countries have been identified in the literature. These include slum and health (Friesen et al., 2020; Lilford et al., 2016; Mberu et al., 2016); Slum and Crime (Badom and Ndeeue, 2023; Eteng et al. (2022); Slum and food insecurity (Oderinde et al., 2023; Kimani-Murage et al., 2014; Gunawardhana and Ginigaddara, 2021; Bhattacharjee and Sassi, 2021); Slum and Urbanisation (Rains et al., 2018; Olalekan, 2014; Mundhe et al., 2021; Agbola and Agunbiade, 2009); Slum and poverty (Ridlo et al., 2020); Slum and Climate Change (Borg et al., 2021). Despite the multiplicity of these studies on issues relating to slums, it has been observed that the majority of these studies do not measure the issues with reference to the living conditions of the slum which was established by UN-HABITAT (2003a). This study supports the submission of Arimah (2012) who noted the need to measure the living conditions of the slum area based on UN-HABITAT's (2003a, 2003b) operational definition of the living conditions in slums, especially at the community level.

Some studies have examined slum formation in developing countries. In Latin America, Cavalcanti et al. (2019) studied the determinants of slum formation in Brazil. The study discovered that urban poverty, inequality and rural-urban migration explain much of the variation in slum growth in Brazil from 1980 to 2000. Similarly, Lall et al. (2007) and Friesen et al. (2018) observed that population growth was one of the major factors influencing slum development. In India, Tripathi (2015) assessed the determinants of large city slum incidence. The study found out that level of education, urban agglomeration, income, consumption expenditure, poverty, employment and unemployment situation negatively contributed to city slum incidence. In the study of Mwacharo (2012) titled factors influencing the growth of informal settlement in Kenya. It was observed that slum was a product of rapid urbanization and industrialization. The study also observed that unemployment and its associated problems contributed immensely to the growth of slums. From the work of Mailu (2006), poverty, rural-urban migration, poor physical planning and population growth were found to influence slum formation in Nairobi. Moreover, Baye et al. (2020) noted that slum formation was influenced by four factors, namely – socio-economic, political and legislative, administrative and demographic factors. Some of the studies on slum formation in Nigeria include; Owoeye and Omole (2012); Yoade (2019); Osore (2019) and Oladehinde et al. (2023a). Owoeye and Omole (2012) observed that poor housing system, inadequate facilities and low socioeconomic attributes positively contributed to slum formation in the study area while Yoade (2019) revealed that inadequate housing, lack of timely maintenance of infrastructures and structures, disappointment with the unmet need for housing and social were the core factors influencing slum development in the core area of the study area. In spite of the fact that slum formation, development and growth were the focus of the studies and not on the relationship between the socio-economic attributes and conditions of slums, the studies provide insight into causes and factors influencing slum formation.

Studies have examined the socioeconomic attributes of the slum dwellers without investigating their relationship with the characteristics of the slum. For example, Egerson and Omololu (2022) investigated the demographic characteristics of residents in emerging slum areas. The study used descriptive statistics such as frequency, charts and percentages in the analysis and discovered that the majority of houses were either dilapidated or shanty, 75.3% of the households have more than 7 members of family size with the majority living in 1–2 rooms apartment. Similarly, Lukeman et al. (2014) examined the socio-economic characteristics of residents in Ijora-Badia, Lagos State, Nigeria. The study observed that 30.2% were involved in petty trading which has direct effect on their daily income and standard of living. It also observed that the incomes of about 39.2% of the respondents were too small to cater for their immediate family. On the other hand, some studies were restricted to the characteristics of the slum without examining its relationship with the socio-economic characteristics of the residents. Ayejugbagbe (2023) assessed the characteristics of slums using 350 households. The study revealed that the majority of the houses in the study area were informal, old and dilapidated. It also revealed that poorly maintained shared pit latrine was mostly used as a mean of convenience. Omole and Owoeye (2011) investigated the slum characteristics of a deplorable residential district in Nigeria. The study discovered high degree of deplorable condition of the living environments and the inadequacy of essential facilities for comfortable living. The study added that the area is crowded with derelict buildings that lack basic household services.

Previous studies exist on the relationship between socio-economic and housing conditions in slum areas (Olayiwola and Ajala, 2022; Agbor et al., 2016; Ogunleye, 2013; Muazu et al., 2020). Olayiwola and Ajala (2022) examined the correlate between socio-economic characteristics and housing quality of residential neighborhoods through the use of Pearson correlation coefficient and t-test. Variables of socioeconomic attributes such as age, gender, marital status, level of education, occupation and average income were correlated with housing quality based on house type, floor, wall painting, roof, ceiling, water toilet waste, electricity and fence. The study recorded that the quality of houses occupied was influenced by the type of occupation, level of education and the average income of the residents. Also, Agbor et al. (2016) assessed the impact of socio-economic characteristics on the quality of housing environment using ANOVA and multiple regression. The study found a positive relationship between the quality of the housing environment and the socio-economic characteristics (such as income, education, occupation and household size) of the residents. Furthermore, Ogunleye (2013) analysed the socio-economic characteristics and housing conditions. Through the use of Pearson correlation coefficient, the study revealed that education, occupation and income have a positive relationship with the building type occupied while gender and household size do not have a significant relationship with the type of building occupied.

From the foregoing reviews, it is observed that while most of the studies only provided general views on slum formation, socio-economic lifestyle and housing conditions, some others focused on just one particular aspect of slum characteristics (see Table 1). Also, studies have documented the relationship between the quality of housing or housing conditions and socio-economic characteristics. Housing alone cannot be used as the only basis for measuring the characteristics of the slum environment. This study is different from other studies as it considers the domain of housing and other domains, namely; tenure security, sanitation facilities, water facilities and sufficient living spaces. These domains were established by UN-Habitat (2003a, 2003b) and Arimah (2012) in measuring the living conditions of the slums. Moreover, it has not been empirically proven whether personal attributes can contribute to the poor environmental condition of the slum area. For example, income, household size, level of education, occupation and year of residency among others are yet to be observed as predictors of poor condition of the slum environment. Residents with low levels of income may live in neighborhoods that are characterized by poor environmental conditions while residents with high income can afford to live in neighborhoods with good environmental conditions. In addition, residents with low levels of income may not be able to afford decent and quality housing, improve the condition of their dwelling and sanitation. They may not also afford clean and quality water. An increase in household size could lead to overcrowding of people and overcrowding of people could make available houses to be congested. Overcrowding tends to force many households with larger family sizes to live in houses that lack adequate sanitation, with water and electricity supply. Residents with informal jobs could earn very little compared to residents with formal jobs. Also, residents with low levels of education tend to be illiterate and grow up to find a living on meager jobs that barely pay them or help their families. This may make it difficult for the residents to improve the overall condition of their environment. Residents with low levels of education tend to have few or no skills that could be used to improve their living standards. Furthermore, it was discovered from the above review that study on the relationship between socio-economic characteristics and physical condition of slum environment has not been properly documented in developing countries, especially Nigeria. Therefore, this study fills the gap by examining the socio-economic characteristics and physical conditions of the slums in developing countries using the core area (Beere and Oje areas) of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria as a case study.

The study was carried out in Ibadan, the capital of Oyo State (see Figure 1). It is the third-largest city by population in Nigeria after Lagos and Kano, with a total population of 3,649,000 as of 2021, and over 6 million people within its metropolitan area. Ibadan is the largest city in Nigeria by geographical coverage. It was further ranked as the second fastest-growing city on the African continent. Ibadan, which was founded in the 1800s, has expanded over the years and was formerly regarded as one of Nigeria's pre-colonial urban centers. The climate of Ibadan is tropical with distinct wet and dry seasons and a mean minimum annual temperature of 21°C (68.80 f) but in consonance with seasonal variations in radiation, sunshine and cloud cover, the mean annual temperature, could change (Alli-Balogun et al., 2018). Raining season in Ibadan runs from March through October, though August sees somewhat of a lull in precipitation. This lull nearly divides the rainy season into two different rainy seasons. November to February forms the city’s dry season, during which Ibadan experiences the typical West African harmattan (Egbinola and Amobichukwu, 2013). There are two peaks for rainfall, June and September. The mean annual rainfall of about 1,205 mm, falling in approximately 109 days with two rainfall peaks in June and September.

There are eleven (11) Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Ibadan, five (5) of which are in the central business districts and the other six (6) are primarily rural or peri-urban settlements (see Figure 2). According to Fourchard (2003), Obembe et al. (2018) and Oladehinde et al. (2024a, 2024b, 2024c), the slums in Ibadan are situated in the inner 5 LGAs: Ibadan North, Ibadan North-East, Ibadan North-West, Ibadan South-West and Ibadan South East. Some areas affected by slums in the inner 5 LGAs include Beere, Oje, Inalende, Olorunsogo, Oke-Irefin, Esu Awele, Eleta, Agbongbon, Bode, Oke Ado, Oja Oba, Orita Merin, Idi-Arere, Mapo, Oke-pade, Yemetu and Oniyanrin (Bobadoye and Fakere, 2013). Out of the 5 LGAs, Ibadan North-West and Ibadan North LGAs were selected for the study. This study is quantitative in nature and adopted a case study design in Beere and Oje areas of Ibadan North West and Ibadan North LGA. The selection of the areas is justified by previous studies (Bobadoye and Fakere, 2013; Makinde, 2012) since the two communities are located in the oldest residential area of Ibadan. They have slum characteristics like overcrowding, poor road networks, poor drainage systems, inadequate sanitation facilities and lack of essential social services and facilities like functioning street lights, electricity, parking spaces, public conveniences, recreational facilities, planned markets, drainages, safe drinking water and poorly ventilated houses (see Figures 3, Plates 1, 2 and 4). The study area is located between longitudes 7⁰20¹E and 7⁰40¹E of the Greenwich Meridian and latitudes 3⁰35¹N and 4⁰10¹N of the Equator. Facts from history have shown that the city was previously a war camp in the 18th century and has grown in both population and area despite a lack of comparable increases in the availability of housing and other essential facilities [National Population Commission (NPC), 2006; Adelekan, 2016]. According to Fourchard (2003), the core area or inner city of Ibadan has experienced an increase through the process of densification. It mostly consists of dwellings for native people. The majority of the houses and lands in this area were regarded as sacred by the original family owners because of their relevance to history and ancestry (Makinde, 2012). It also comprises the oldest, highest-density and lowest-quality residential neighborhood without sanitary services (see Figure 3). Makinde (2012) further observed that there has been a significant decrease in the economic value of most inner-city areas. Coker et al. (2008) corroborate the submission of Makinde (2012) and added that part of the area has also witnessed a decline in housing quality. These submissions corroborated Oladehinde et al. (2024a, 2024b, 2024c) on what was called the inner-city slum area.

Some studies have highlighted different reasons why many residents of urban areas are living in slum conditions, especially in Nigeria. For instance, Dimuna and Omatsone (2010) noted that most of the buildings especially in the inner city do not comply with the building bylaws and regulations. Building bylaws and regulations are the minimum requirements for the design, construction and maintenance of buildings to ensure safety, durability and functionality in Nigeria (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2006). These regulations include certain measurements for setbacks and airspace; setbacks to public infrastructure and utilities; building coverage permissible per plot of land for residential, commercial, industrial and other uses plot sizes; greenery and landscaping, and permissible residential densities. Other regulations address permissible complementary developments in land use zones, space standards, parking requirements and height of buildings. For example, do not build on waterways or under high-tension power lines; observe stipulated setbacks and airspace. Low level of compliance with these building bylaws and regulations has contributed to the emergence of slums in the cities of Nigeria. In the view of Adedeji(2023), the unplanned nature of most cities particularly in the inner area, and the inability of the formal housing market to meet the demand for housing by low-income earners contributed to the proliferation of slums in the urban core area of cities in Nigeria. Other reasons according to Osatuyi (2004), Aduwo et al. (2017) and Owoeye (2006) include current land policies and tenure system, high level of poverty among the people, high cost of construction and lack of affordable mortgages and housing financing.

Survey design was used in this study. The rationale for this design was in line with the way objectives of this research and evidence were drawn from the literature (Adewale et al., 2020; Adams and Lawrence, 2019). According to Adewale et al. (2020), survey research design has more advantages as it helps researchers to collect more volume of data from the respondents within a short duration of time by asking questions that can capture their experience on the subject under consideration or situation using questionnaire administration. In this study, a cross-sectional design was used. The predictors of this study were among the representative group of the residents in Beere and Oje communities at a particular period. This is due to the fact that the study was exploratory and descriptive in nature, and it was conducted to investigate the characteristics of the slum area using UN-HABITAT's (2003a, 2003b) operational definition. Furthermore, some of the studies such as Olayiwola and Ajala (2022), Agbor et al. (2016), Ogunleye (2013) and Muazu et al. (2020) reviewed in this paper came from surveys that were cross-sectional. A well-organized questionnaire was used in the collection of data. The researcher developed the questionnaire with the help of experts in the field and based on evidence from the reviewed literature. The design includes two sections. Section 1 was on the socio-economic characteristics of slum dwellers. The data were gathered on gender, age, income, marital status, occupation, education and household size, among others. Numeric values were assigned to these variables. (for examples, male =1, female = 2; Christianity = 1, Islamic = 2, Traditional = 3; Single = 1, Married = 2, Divorced = 3, Widowed = 4; among others). Section 2 was on the physical conditions of the slum areas. These characteristics were based on the operational definition of the slum area of UN-HABITAT (2003a, 2003b, 2013). It was previously established that slum areas are characterized by a lack of the following conditions; access to improved water; access to improved sanitation; sufficient living spaces that are not overcrowded, structural quality/durability of dwelling; and security of tenure. The questionnaire was therefore used to collect data from the respondents based on their perception of the prevalence of conditions in the slum environment. Data were particularly gathered on the perception of the residents on the condition of access to improved water (piped connection to house or plot; public standpipe serving not more than five households; protected dug well, rainwater collection among others), access to improved sanitation (direct connection to public sewer; direction connection to septic tank; pour flush latrine; ventilated improved pit latrine with slab), structural quality/durability of housing (roof, walls and floors are constructed with durable building materials, dwellings adhere to building codes and regulations, dwelling is not in a state of disrepair, dwelling is not in need of significant repairs among others), sufficient living space (not more than two persons per room; the dwelling observed a minimum standard for floor area per person with at least 5 square meters), and security of tenure (Evidence of documentation; household with formal title deed to both land and residence; households with formal title deeds to either land or residence; de factor or de jure protection from evictions, among others). During the process of data collection, respondents were instructed to rate their level of agreement with statements regarding the 30 variables on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from “1” for strongly disagree to “5” for strongly agree. Evidence from the review of previous studies (Owoeye and Omole, 2012; Yoade, 2019; Mwacharo, 2012; Baye et al., 2020; Ayejugbagbe, 2023) shows that there was no clear agreement on the adopted dimensions of slum condition in measuring the prevalence of slum conditions except for Arimah (2012) who first adopted these dimensions at country level and further recommended the need for adoption of these dimensions of slum condition at community level.

Before the collection of the main data, a reconnaissance survey was conducted in different residential core areas of Ibadan North Local Government. This was done to familiarize oneself with the physical condition of the slum environment. The report from the reconnaissance survey was helpful in the selection of two slum areas in the inner-city, namely; Beere and Oje slum areas. The choice of the two communities was justified by previous studies (Bobadoye and Fakere, 2013; Makinde, 2012; and Adewale et al., 2019) which identified the areas as the core with a high prevalence of slums. The report from the reconnaissance survey was also helpful in revising a few questions within the questionnaire. It was further used to cross-check the number of residential buildings (through physical counting) that were obtained through Google Earth imagery. The main survey used printed hard copies of the questionnaire, which were given to the selected household heads from each residential building. A multistage sampling procedure was used in the selection of the residential buildings in the study area Authors from previous studies have adopted this type of sampling procedure (Oladehinde et al., 2024b; Adewale et al., 2020). The first stage was the selection of study areas, Beere and Oje areas. The second stage was the identification and selection of residential buildings. A building survey was conducted to ascertain the number of buildings in the study area. The number of buildings was also validated through the use of Google Earth. A total of 2,455 residential buildings were identified in the study area. Systematic technique was further used in the selection of buildings for the study. Systematic technique is a probability sampling method in which members of the population are selected according to a random starting point but with a fixed, periodic or regular interval (or k) from a larger population. In this wise, if the population order is random or random-like, then the method will give a representative sample that can be used to draw conclusion about the population under consideration. To adopt this procedure, the list of the houses was collected through physical counting and numbering of residential houses during the pilot survey. The listed houses were further validated using Google Earth. Houses were selected at random from the listed houses provided using systematic sampling. The procedure involved random selection of the first house from the Kth listed houses, while the subsequent unit of investigation was every fourth house of the listed houses. This technique involved random selection of the first residential building, subsequent unit of selection was every five residential buildings, representing 20% of the sample size. Using the procedure, a total of four hundred and ninety-one (491) residential buildings were surveyed. One household head was surveyed in each residential building for questionnaire administration. Information on the socioeconomic characteristics and the condition of the slum environment were obtained through the questionnaire. In total, 491 copies of the questionnaire comprising 225, and 266 were distributed in Beere and Oje respectively. The sample size is reasonable considering the uniformity of the slum environment and dwellers of the study area. Similar findings were obtained by Onuoha et al. (2024), Ayejugbagbe (2023) and Preko et al. (2021) in a related study using a smaller sample size of 260 respondents.

Data collected were analysed using three statistical tools. First, descriptive statistics such as frequency tables and percentages were used to analyse the socioeconomic characteristics such as age, gender, income, occupation and length of stay, among others. Second, principal component analysis was used to analyse and group the dimensions of slum condition using the varimax rotation method. The rule of the decision of principal component analysis is that the analysis is acceptable and suitable when the KMO value is above 0.60 with the significant level of Bartlett’s test at 0.05 (Oladehinde, 2019; Oladehinde et al., 2023b; Popoola et al., 2021). Based on this, the test of data fitness for factor analysis generated a 0.751 KMO value and Bartlett’s test has a statistical significance of 0.05 (p = 0.000). This meets the suggested requirement.

Lastly, categorical regression (CATREG) was used in the third analysis. Categorical regression (with optimal scaling using alternative least squares) is used to quantify categorical variables using optimal scaling, resulting in an optimal linear regression equation for the transformed variables. It was also used as an alternative to traditional linear regression in examining the relationship between socioeconomic characteristics and the condition of the slum area. When addressing numerical data as well as nominal and ordinal data, CATREG analysis has some advantages over conventional linear regression. The analysis can be used to convert standardized non-numeric data into numerical data before presenting the result of the estimation, to produce the estimates of standardized coefficients only (Ibem et al., 2017). It can also be used to estimate or quantify the relationships between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. It can be used to examine the strength and nature of the relationship between variables (Agbor et al., 2016; Oladehinde et al., 2024b, 2024c). This made it easier to get around the problems that come with nominal variable dummy coding in multivariate linear regression analysis in general. The criterion (dependent variable) in the CATREG analysis was the mean attachment score, which was derived from the 30 items used to measure the prevalence of slum conditions. Also, 10 items that were used to examine the respondents’ socioeconomic characteristics were the independent variables (see Table A1 in the  Appendix).

The results of the survey are discussed under different subheadings. Unless it is stated in any other way, the tables, percentages principal component analysis and categorical regression used in summarizing the findings are the results of the survey carried out in 2023.

Findings on the socio-economic profile of the slum dwellers could be used to explain the condition or characteristics of the slums. Socio-economic variables such as gender, age, marital status, income, education, years of residency, occupation, household size, nativity and religion were considered in this study. These variables were established in the literature by Olayiwola and Ajala (2022), Agbor et al. (2016) and Ogunleye (2013) to have a strong relationship with housing quality in slum environments. Analysis in Table 2 reveals that most respondents were female (60.1%) while more than half of the respondents (62.3%) were above 41 years old. This shows that most of the respondents were mature adults. Also, 61.7% of the slum dwellers were married while 27.9% were single. It could be inferred that respondents attached more importance to marriage institutions in the slum area. It was further recorded that 49.1% and 25.3% were respectively primary and secondary school holders while 14.1%, 10.2% and 1.2% respectively had no formal education, tertiary education and post-graduate education. Analysis in the Table shows that 50.9% stayed between 11 to 20 years in the study area while most respondents were self-employed (67.2%). Moreover, more than half of the respondents earned below N20,000 (59.5%). This indicates that majority of the residents in the study area were low-income earners. Findings reveal that most of the slum dwellers were Muslims (60.9%) with Ibadan origin (60.1%) while their household size was three persons in a family. The result aligns with the observations of Agbola and Agunbiade (2009), and Adewale et al. (2020) on the finding regarding the socio-economic characteristics as the majority of the slum dwellers were low-income earners, married, female, self-employed, Muslim with Ibadan origin, above 41 years of age and have stayed for more than 11 years. The results suggest that the majority of the surveyed residents were familiar with the study area. The proportional representation of the findings on socio-economic characteristics shows that they are thus qualified to provide reliable information for this study.

This subsection examines the prevalence of slum conditions based on the operational definition of UN-Habitat (2003a, 2003b). The prevalence of the slum conditions includes the perception of the residents on the condition of access to improved water, access to improved sanitation, structural quality/durability of housing, sufficient living space and security of tenure (see  Appendix). The analysis of the explanatory principal component was used to assess the prevalence of the slum condition in the study area. Results in Table 3 revealed that five dimensions of the slum condition were observed in the survey. The first in the component analysis has 11 variables. The variables include permanent building materials are not used for walls (0.916), permanent building materials are not used for the roof (0.873), dwelling is not connected with electricity supply (0.864), permanent building materials are not used for floors (0.858), dwelling does not comply with building codes (0.821), dwelling is located near toxic waste (0.753), dwelling is in need of major repairs (0.746), dwelling is located on flood plain (0.702), dwelling is located on or in a dangerous right of way (0.656), dwelling is located on steep slope (0.573) and dwelling is in a dilapidated state (0.557). The first component accounts for 32.58% of the variance and could be named lack of durable housing. The second dimension, which accounts for 19.78% of the total variance, is composed of 6 variables: households do not have formal title deeds to both land and residence (0.926), households do not have evidence of documentation that can be used as proof of secure tenure status (0.913), households do not have formal title deeds to either land or residence (0.833), households do not have enforceable agreements or any document as proof of a tenure arrangement (0.819), households do not have De facto protection from forced evictions (0.736) and households do not have De Jure protection from forced evictions (0.696). This is termed lack of secure tenure. Six (6) variables were highly loaded on the third dimension and it accounts for 13.25% of the variance. The variables include piped is not connected to house or plot (0.874), unprotected dug well (0.826), unprotected spring water (0.796), public standpipe serving more than 5 households (0.797), rainwater collection (0.670) and borehole not connected to house or plot (0.669). The third dimension was called lack of improved water. Five (5) variables such as dwelling does not connect directly to public sewer (0.808), dwelling does not connect directly to the septic tank (0.744), dwelling does not connect directly to pour flush latrine (0.675), dwelling does not have ventilated improved pit latrine (0.662) and dwelling does not have pit latrine with a slab or composting toilets (0.641) were loaded on the fourth dimension and accounts for 9.82% of the variance while two (2) variables such as more than two persons per room (0.804), and dwelling do not observe minimum standard for floor area per person (0.777) were loaded on the fifth dimension and accounts for 4.48% of the variance. The fourth and the fifth dimensions could be referred to lack of improved sanitation and lack of sufficient living space respectively. The findings show that lack of durable housing, lack of secure tenure, lack of improved water, lack of improved sanitation and lack of sufficient living area were the prevailing living conditions in the slum environment based on their order of importance. The results show that the surveyed respondents understood the prevalence of slum conditions from five perspectives- namely; lack of durable housing, lack of secure tenure, lack of improved water, lack of improved sanitation and lack of sufficient living space.

As mentioned earlier CATREG was used to measure or estimate the relationship between socio-economic characteristics and conditions of the slum environment in the study area. The indicators of all the dimensions of the condition of the slum environment were summed up together. The summed variable of the dimension was used as the dependent variable. while variables of socio-economic characteristics (such as income, gender, age, occupation, level of education, length of residency, nativity, religion, household size and marital status) were used as the independent variable. Presented in Table 4 are the results of the regression which was used to examine the nature of the relationship between the socio-economic characteristics and conditions of the slum environment. The results indicate that out of ten (10) variables included in the regression model, only eight (8) of these variables were significant. The multiple regression (r) of the relationship is 91.4% (0.914) while the R² is 83.5% (0.835). This means that 83.5% of the total variation in the conditions of the slum environment is jointly accounted for by the eight (8) socioeconomic characteristics. The F value (69.841) of the ANOVA in Table 4 is also significant at 0.05 (p = 0.000). The eight (8) predictors of the conditions of the slum environment include age, marital status, level of education, occupation, income, year of residency, nativity and household size. The coefficients of standardized beta emphasizing the beta (β) values and weights are also displayed in the results in Table 5. Based on the 10 independent variables that were examined in this study, the beta values show how many times the conditions of the slum environment will vary for every increase or decrease in the standard deviation. The beta values indicate the degree to which 10 independent attributes influence the dependent variable (condition of the slum environment); hence, the greater the absolute value of beta weights of each dependent variable, the greater the effect on the conditions of the slum environment. The beta weights as observed in Table 3 show that the four strongest predictors of the conditions of the slum environment based on the ordering of their strength are income (β = 1.785, p = 0.000), household size (β = 1.695, p = 0.000), occupation (β = 0.969, p = 0.000) and level of education (β = 0.376, p = 0.000). This shows that the condition of the slum environment will vary by 1.785, 1.695, 0.969 and 0.376 times per unit increase or decrease in standard deviation in income, household size, occupation and level of education respectively. Moreover, marital status (β = 0.184, p = 0.000), age (β = 0.089, p = 0.000), year of residency (β = 0.051, p = 0.028) and nativity (β = 0.041, p = 0.001) were also significant predictors of the conditions of slum environment. This also shows that the condition of the slum environment will vary by 0.184, 0.089, 0.051 and 0.041 times per unit increase or decrease in standard deviation in their marital status, age, year of residency and nativity in the study area respectively.

Based on the findings, it was revealed that lack of durable housing has the highest proportion (32.5%) of the total variation. This is an indication that the lack of good and durable housing is a major prevailing condition of the slum environment. The finding of this study corroborates other studies such as Ayejugbagbe (2023), Walubwa and Shah (2013), Olotuah (2012). According to Walubwa and Shah (2013), most houses in developing countries such as Africa, Asia and South America where slum formation/slum development is common are characterized by old buildings – though sometimes span from 20 years and above. This agrees with the submission of Ayejugbagbe (2023) who observed that more than two-thirds of the houses were above 50 years old. In addition to the old nature of the houses, Olotuah (2012) observed that some of the houses are not durable because they are constructed with substandard materials that are not durable. The materials used sometimes may be innovative but they are not always durable. This is not farfetched from the fact that most of the slum dwellers often build houses with reference to their financial ability. As a result, some of the buildings were constructed with mud that were not plastered with concrete (see Figure 1). This in the long run is subjected to wear and tear. Walubwa and Shah (2013) added that slum dwellers are very poor and may not afford durable materials for sustainable housing. A house is durable and sustainable when the used materials are structurally permanent and can protect its inhabitants in extreme climate conditions (UN-HABITAT, 2003c). The second problem that was recorded according to their order of importance was lack of secure tenure (19.78%). One of the primary reasons why slums persist is because of lack of secure tenure. Without security of tenure, slum-dwellers have few ways and little or no incentive to improve their surroundings. Secure tenure is mostly preconditioned for access to other social and economic opportunities including public services, credit and livelihood opportunities. This study agrees with the submissions of Oladehinde et al. (2024b), Oladehinde and Olayiwola (2021), Kim et al. (2019) and Ayejugbagbe (2023). As observed by Oladehinde et al. (2024b), Oladehinde and Olayiwola (2021) secure tenure often hinders residents from making any substantial investment in land, undermines long-term planning and limits attempts to improve shelter conditions. It was also supported by Kim et al. (2019) that the absence of secure land property rights can limit the land owners and tenants in making meaningful investments in land. It was further noted that secure tenure has been a major setback in improving services and other basic infrastructure in slum areas. It also supports the study of Ayejugbagbe (2023) who added that most of the houses in the slum area were constructed with simple technology before modern planning came into existence. That is the creation and approval of layout and development plans which come before development. According to Ayejugbagbe (2023), the slum environments are marked with a high degree of informality since developers do not apply for or receive permission before starting construction. This is also in line with the assertion of Alabi (2019) that slum dwellers live with no secure tenure and buildings were often constructed without the consent of the planning authority. Lack of improved water (13.25%) was the next issue of the slum environment. This study corroborates the submission of Angoua et al. (2018) that lack of access to improved water often affects slum dwellers living in extreme poverty who are vulnerable and marginalized. Improved water is essential to human survival since it may be used for cleaning, cooking, drinking and maintaining personal cleanliness. However, lack of improved water in slum environments often makes life more difficult for residents. The difficulties include buying water from vendors at a high price, which is unaffordable, owing to a lack of financial limitations and the high cost of living, and having to travel great distances to other settlements to obtain water. The whole slum environment will be greatly affected when there is little or no access to improved water. One of the main effects of this is the increase in water-borne illnesses like cholera, which is brought on by poor levels of personal hygiene and drinking water that is contaminated. In addition to lack of improved water is lack of improved sanitation (9.82%). This study affirmed the submission of Yeager et al. (1999) that lack of improved sanitation often leaves parents with few options for getting rid of their children’s faeces, which end up in drainage ditches and public passageways. It also corroborated the observations of Isunju (2010), Ahmed (2005) and Hanchett et al. (2003) that inadequate access to improved sanitation tends to force people living in slums to use unsanitary pit latrines, polythene bags or open storm drains nearby, which poses a serious risk of disease and pollution to the environment (see Plates 3 and 4). The study discovered that lack of sufficient living area (4.84%) was the last, based on the order of importance. This finding aligns with the submission of Marx et al. (2013) who noted that slum environments are often overcrowded and lack adequate living space, accommodating a large number of slum dwellers.

Regarding the relationship between socioeconomic characteristics and the condition of the slum environment. It was recorded that out of ten (10) variables of socio-economic characteristics, only eight (8) variables such as income, household size, occupation, level of education, marital status, age, year of residency and nativity were significant. This shows that the poor condition of the slum environment could be attributed to the eight (8) socioeconomic variables of the slum dwellers. In other words, the eight socioeconomic variables were the major reasons for the poor environmental condition of the slum area in the inner core of Ibadan (see Figure 4). The finding is in agreement with several studies which stated that income (Ogunleye, 2013; Olotuah, 2012), household size (Agbor et al., 2016), level of education, occupation (Toyobo et al., 2011; Ayeni et al., 2009; Akinjokun et al., 2018), marital status (Olayiwola and Ajala, 2022), age (Hidalgo and Hernández, 2001), year of residency (Adewale et al., 2020; Anton and Lawrence, 2014) were predictors influencing the poor condition of the slum environment. Specifically, it was observed that the income of the respondents influences the condition of the slum environment in the inner core area of Ibadan. According to Olotuah (2012), people with low income tend to live in neighborhoods that are characterized by low environmental standards at relatively high densities while people with high income can afford to pay high bills or build a decent house. This also affirmed the observation of Farinmade et al. (2021) that slum dwellers are very poor and their socio-economic condition does not allow them to live a healthy life. Residents with low income cannot improve their housing conditions, they cannot improve their sanitation and cannot get a safe water supply. The average monthly income (N27,500) of the residents is below the national minimum wage (N30,000) in Nigeria. When the monthly income is spread across the household members, the income per capita becomes almost negligible (Aliu et al., 2021). This indicates a higher rate of poverty among slum dwellers. This in turn might make slum households vulnerable to communicable diseases and malnutrition. Low levels of income may limit them from improving their environment and affording basic human needs. Household size was observed to be significant in the model. An increase in the number of households usually accounts for a high occupancy ratio. This is often common in the slum area of the inner city. This causes overcrowding of people and buildings resulting in poor environmental conditions and diseases. Another predictor in the model was occupation as the majority of the slum dwellers were self-employed. This is also known as an informal job. The study corroborates existing studies in India and Nigeria where slum residents were observed to be engaged in informal jobs (Kulasekhar and Dasaratharamaiah, 2020; Egerson and Omololu, 2022). Slum dwellers often engage in informal labor through which they earn very little. Moreover, the level of education was a significant predictor. This is attributed to the fact that most of the slum dwellers were primary and secondary school holders. The result of this finding aligns with the assertion of Aliu et al. (2021) that the secondary school level of education often gives limited job opportunities to holders within the city. The implication of the low level of education of the residents in the study area was that they might likely undermine the importance of a healthy environment. Residents within this level of education might have little or no regard for a good living environment. They might also have the tendency to litter the slum environment and have low regard for personal hygiene. The study agrees with previous studies concerning marital status, age, year of residency and nativity (Rahman et al., 2015; Kulasekhar and Dasaratharamaiah, 2020; Naveed and Anwar, 2014; Farinmade et al., 2021). Particularly, the study observed that most of the slum dwellers were married, above 41 years of age and had stayed for more than 20 years in the study area and are Yorubas. While previous studies have discovered that the condition of the slum environment can change with gender (Anton and Lawrence, 2014), this was not the case in this study where gender did not emerge as significant in the model. This study also agrees with other studies that the slum environment is affected by low socioeconomic condition of the slum dwellers (Ige and Nekhwevha, 2014; De and Nag, 2016).

While this study discussed the findings, it was observed that most of the respondents had low socio-economic status. Low socio-economic status among slum residents has a range of significant implications that affect their well-being. The first implication is health issues, individuals with low levels of socio-economic status often face high rates of illness due to factors like overcrowding, poor sanitation and limited access to healthcare. Malnutrition is also prevalent, impacting physical and mental development, particularly in children. In addition to this is the education barrier which is frequently limited. Schools in slum areas may be underfunded and overcrowded leading to lower educational attainment. This perpetuates the cycle of poverty, as residents may lack the skills needed for better job opportunities. The third is employment issues, most of the residents often engage in informal work which is typically unstable and poorly paid. This further entrenches them in poverty. The fourth is the housing issue, slum environments often suffer from inadequate housing, lacking proper infrastructure. This can include unsafe building materials, poor ventilation and lack of basic services like water and electricity, Also, most of the residents in the slum environment tend to experience social stigma and exclusion from mainstream society, creating barriers to accessing services and fostering feelings of marginalization. Moreover, Basic services such as clean water sanitation, health care and public transport are often scarce or nonexistent in slums. This lack of access exacerbates existing health and social problems.

The study assessed the socio-economic attributes of slum dwellers, the prevailing conditions of the slum environment, especially with reference to housing, sanitation facilities, water facilities, tenure security and sufficient living spaces as well as their relationships in the inner city of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The study concluded that the most prevailing slum condition was a lack of access to quality, affordable and durable housing that could protect dwellers against extreme climate conditions. Next to this, was a lack of easy access to the security of tenure that could prevent forced evictions, others include lack of improved water, sanitation and sufficient living space in their order of prevalence in the study area. The study discovered that eight socioeconomic variables such as income, household size, occupation, level of education, marital status, age, year of residency and nativity contributed to the poor condition of the slum environment in the study area. The study also concluded that despite the fact that the condition of the slum environment is a product of multiple interrelated factors such as rural-urban migration, insufficient plans for the development of urban housing, lack of enforcement of planning standards and lack of repairs and maintenance, personal attributes also contribute to poor environmental condition of the slum area. Based on the aforementioned findings, the study suggested the following recommendations. It is a known fact that the complete disappearance of slums especially in the study area and other core areas of the cities in Nigeria as well as other areas in the inner core of cities in developing countries may not be possible. This shows that slum dwellers may remain no matter the efforts put together to evict them. There is therefore the need for government at the Federal, State, and local level, non-governmental organization and international bodies like slum dwellers international to upgrade slum areas and embark on urban renewal programmes in slum areas. This should be given a major priority. In addressing the issue of quality, affordable and durable housing, a comprehensive approach that involves community participation, government intervention and support from non-profit organization and international agencies is required. This could be through investment in affordable housing solutions and infrastructure improvements with the ease of securing the tenure of land and housing. There is also the need to improve the sanitation and water facilities in the study area. There is a need for sensitization and awareness creation among the slum dwellers on the essence of maintaining a good culture of social facilities provided and the importance of a habitable environment. There is a need for adequate enlightenment among the residents on sanitary education. Regular check-ups should be made by sanitary inspectors to monitor their sanitation practices. The level of education among the residents of the study area significantly impacts the living standards of the people as well as the overall conditions of the slum. Efforts should be made to improve access to quality education from primary to tertiary level. Moreover, efforts should be made to improve the socio-economic condition of the area to reduce urban poverty. This could be through the provision of jobs that can revitalize the economic base of the area; and the establishment of vocational training centres at strategic places to enhance the skills of the slum dwellers. Socio-economic conditions can also be improved if loan with little or nterest is given to slum dwellers to boost their business to enhance their monthly income and thereby invest in their immediate environment. Lastly, the study recommended that improving the socio-economic conditions of slum dwellers would lead to improved environmental conditions. The aforementioned recommendations if considered could improve the living conditions of slum residents and create a more sustainable and resilient urban community which is the focus of SDG 11. Although this study has examined the socioeconomic determinants of slum development in the inner city of Ibadan, Nigeria, it also provided information that policymakers, planners and non-governmental organizations could use. Regarding the spatial dimension of the socioeconomic determinants influencing the development of slums, this study is still less notable. Investigations into the spatial aspect of the socioeconomic determinants of slum development across different cities of Nigeria as well as other developing countries could further be investigated.

Funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflicting interests: The author has declared that there is no potential conflict of interest regarding the research, authorship and publication of this article.

Ethical approval: a) The research was approved by the ethics review board of Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria. b) The study followed all required ethical procedures for the gathering of data. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.