Unlocking the past: key lessons in human-environment dynamics through cultural heritage analysis

The interpretation of disasters is deeply rooted in human perception and historical beliefs. Throughout history, humanity has looked to the sky to understand various phenomena, fostering a belief in a predetermined existence. The term “disaster” originates from the Latin words for “star” and “apart,” symbolising a celestial chaos that disrupts human communities (Kroll-Smith, 2018, p. 18). This notion of disruption is echoed in the term “catastrophe,” which has evolved from its origins in Greek theatre to encompass significant social and cultural implications. Disasters have consistently been viewed not just as physical events but as social and cultural constructs, prompting societies to seek understanding and protection against their impacts, tackling different aspects of human life. Recent transdisciplinary studies have expanded the concept of disaster from an emergency phase to a continuous process, challenging individuals and communities to confront their vulnerabilities (Revet, 2017, p. 14).

However, despite the growing body of literature exploring the socio-cultural dimensions of disasters, there remains a significant gap in connecting these insights to concrete urban resilience strategies and policy frameworks. Specifically, the integration of indigenous knowledge systems with modern engineering practices is still underdeveloped in both academic research and institutional agendas.

This paper addresses this gap by examining how traditional knowledge, often marginalised in dominant disaster risk reduction (DRR) narratives, can contribute to innovative and inclusive urban resilience planning. By bridging cultural interpretations of disaster with contemporary sustainability and DRR initiatives, it proposes a methodological framework that aligns local epistemologies with global objectives such as the Sendai Framework (United Nations, 2015a) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2015b). In doing so, the paper offers a novel perspective on how resilience can be reimagined through a more pluralistic and context-sensitive lens, ultimately strengthening both academic inquiry and practical policy implementation.

The intricate relationship between culture and safety encompasses individual, group and organisational attitudes, knowledge, norms and behaviours regarding safety issues (Duca and Gugg, 2023). Cultural heritage plays a crucial role in safety practices, knowledge sharing, risk perception and community engagement, reflecting the significance of both tangible and intangible cultural assets (Duca, 2012a). Historians François Walter, Pascal Delvaux and Bernardino Fantini (Walter et al., 2006, p. 19) note the transition of Western society from an ancient phase of protection to a society of prevention, emphasising a shift toward dominating natural forces. Throughout history, disasters and mythical deluges have prompted civilisations to rebuild on the ruins of obsolete worlds; in this framework the threat of a catastrophe was manipulated by those in power to exert and consolidate authority (Duca and Gugg, 2023).

The instrumentalisation of fear is not a recent phenomenon; it has been evident in various historical and cultural contexts. For instance, in some traditional societies, powerful symbols like the Ndunga mask of the Woyo people of Central Africa evoke power and fear, reflecting the intertwining of political and religious authority. This use of fear is essential for analysing the discourses of doomsayers and the social reactions following shocks, as communities draw on their ceremonial and functional resources to reinvent themselves in the aftermath of inconceivable events (Valentin, 2022). The response to catastrophic events involves not only mourning and commemoration but also practical actions such as relief, reconstruction and economic revitalisation. The nature of these responses is influenced by the interpretation of the disaster, whether it is perceived as of human, natural, or divine origin.

Disasters are multifaceted, causing both destruction and creativity and prompting varied societal responses. Commemoration, as a form of collective memory management, allows communities to remember and rebuild themselves after a disaster, marking time and unifying the present community. However, the balance between the duty of memory and the reconstruction of bonds constitutes an “ideal” horizon that is impossible to fully achieve. Societies draw on past disasters and commemorations to respond more effectively to present risks, but this balance remains a complex and ongoing process (Mangeot et al., 2004).

In various societies, disasters are seen as part of broader social, economic and ecological dynamics. For instance, among the Nuer of Sudan, there is no panic in the face of livestock loss; they collectively manage and accept the crisis. Similarly, the Zoques of Chiapas have built their social, cultural and economic organisation around the existence of the Chichonal volcano, developing empirical knowledge and mythology to deal with its moods (Evans-Pritchard, 1968; Garcia-Acosta, 2002). In European rural societies, such as the Alpine regions, give meaning to the memory of disasters, marked by fear and an ethical relationship of respect and mistrust towards nature (Dall’Ò, 2019; Revaz, 2003).

The relationship between society and catastrophic events reveals the intricate balance and interplay between nature and culture, shaping the practical modalities through which a society defines itself in opposition to the natural order. Disasters are not merely destructive occurrences; they also generate cultural productions and influence the way societies come together. Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s perspective on the origin of human associations emphasises how natural incidents, such as floods and volcanic eruptions, bring people together to repair common losses, highlighting the role of catastrophic events in shaping human society and cultural economies (Banda, 2002). The economic function of disasters is not solely to destroy but also to prompt repair, healing, and the generation of institutions. However, the modern world’s increasing vulnerability, stemming from technological and scientific advancements, has led to a constant sense of emergency and precariousness. While societies produce artefacts to protect themselves from disasters, they remain entangled in an emergency logic that risks perpetuating itself (Falconieri et al., 2022).

The memory of disasters is a complex process that involves mourning, recovery and partial oblivion. It varies significantly from one individual to another and has a profound impact on risk awareness and perception. The concept of resilience, which focuses on perception, coordination of functional and spatial scales and qualitative risk management solutions, aligns with the complex nature of collective memory. Resilience is driven by remembrance, and decision-makers must navigate the emotional implications of disaster memory to ensure its durability and relevance (Falconieri et al., 2022). Therefore, the relationship between society and catastrophic events is deeply intertwined with the construction of memory, the management of risks and the ongoing challenge of balancing emergency responses with long-term resilience.

The research approach encompassed a multifaceted investigation into the relationship between cultural heritage and disaster risk management. The study is one of the outputs of the CORE Project, which focused on developing a harmonised vision of crisis management awareness and capability through transdisciplinary collaboration between environmental and social science communities. The project aims to strengthen disaster resilience at municipal, Member State and EU agency levels by addressing the diversity of European society and the variability of human factors.

Therefore, the study focused on tangible and intangible cultural heritage, traditional knowledge, land use and construction technologies, with the objective of providing insights into their potential contributions to the prevention, reduction and response to current disasters. It aimed to broaden the perspective on disaster risk management by examining how various cultures have historically coped with both natural and anthropogenic hazards, and how their knowledge systems have been embedded into heritage-based practices.

The methodology was built on a combination of theoretical frameworks from cultural geography and social anthropology, particularly emphasising the relational dimensions of place, memory and practice in risk contexts (Bwambale et al., 2023). To enhance the understanding of human-environment interactions and identify valuable information for local communities to manage risks effectively, the study adopted a qualitative comparative methodology, combining:

• document analysis, including peer-reviewed literature, grey literature and technical reports from international agencies such as UNESCO and ICOMOS;

Case study review of historical and contemporary examples of disaster-affected cultural heritage:

• semi-structured interviews with experts in heritage preservation and disaster risk management.

The selection of case studies followed three specific criteria:

1. diversity of geographic and environmental contexts;

2. documented historical continuity in coping practices; and

3. relevance to contemporary disaster scenarios as identified within the CORE Project.

This methodological approach captured data and provided insights into the following natural and manmade disaster scenarios: floods, earthquakes, wildfires, landslides and armed conflicts. This allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the diverse impacts of disasters on cultural heritage (CORE Project - D2.2, 2023; CORE Project - D3.2, 2023). To analyse these cases, the research applied interpretative coding techniques to the interview transcripts and historical materials, allowing for the identification of recurring patterns, adaptive practices and cultural-symbolic meanings associated with risk.

In parallel, the study investigated traditional construction technologies with potential relevance for contemporary DRR strategies. This involved a two-stage literature review:

1. identifying resilient and efficient construction technologies in recent publications, including journal articles and technical reports; and

2. tracing the historical and cultural origins of those technologies in diverse communities.

This process aimed to overcome the challenges related to identifying the ancestries of construction techniques and to assess their contemporary applicability. The review incorporated both traditional and indigenous knowledge as well as modern engineering solutions, offering a comprehensive overview of how different construction approaches have evolved and been used in DRR contexts.

Overall, this methodological framework enabled the integration of cultural heritage, local epistemologies and contemporary scientific knowledge, fostering a pluralistic and inclusive perspective on urban resilience that aligns with international frameworks such as the Sendai Framework and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

This section presents a selection of historical and contemporary practices rooted in traditional knowledge, offering valuable insights for DRR. While primarily descriptive, each subsection includes analytical commentary to link past experiences with present-day strategies for resilience.

For the sake of clarity, the knowledge and historical data in the following sections are organised into two topics:

1. Intangible and tangible cultural heritage, and traditional knowledge; and

2. Specific and typical construction technologies, typologies and use of the territory developed according to lessons learnt from a calamitous event.

This subsection has been enriched with a more balanced focus between intangible expressions (songs, legends, rituals) and tangible heritage (landscapes, forests, settlements, objects), while integrating reflections on their potential or proven contributions to modern DRR strategies.

The ocean has always held profound significance for Indonesian coastal communities, serving as a source of both joy and trepidation while imparting invaluable lessons. Through generations, traditional wisdom transmitted via stories and songs has guided these communities, including crucial practices like seeking higher ground following earthquake-triggered low tides, a measure that proved lifesaving during the 2004 tsunami. For instance, the Mentawai people view earthquakes as auspicious events, reflected in their uplifting earthquake songs (Zulfadrim et al., 2019), while the Kaili tribe in Palu Sulawesi recognises key earthquake indicators, underscoring the importance of swift action to avert disaster (Kurnio et al., 2021). Sadly, during the 2004 tsunami, this indigenous knowledge was disregarded, highlighting the critical link between traditional responses and ecosystem relationships in managing tsunami risks (Rafliana, 2018).

This case underscores how intangible heritage, such as songs and oral traditions, can function as early warning systems when properly integrated with formal DRR mechanisms. The failure to heed local knowledge in 2004 illustrates the need for hybrid systems that combine community wisdom with scientific alert protocols.

Notably, the devastation of the 2004 tsunami was exacerbated by the progressive loss of mangrove forests along the Indian Ocean coast, which could have mitigated its impact (Alongi, 2008). Mangroves, known for their resilience and ability to reduce wave energy, offer vital protection against tsunamis, with wider forests providing more significant mitigation effects. However, Southeast Asia, home to a significant portion of global mangrove forests, faces rapid deforestation and degradation due to human activities (Spalding et al., 2010).

Here, the tangible dimension of cultural landscapes becomes evident: mangroves represent both ecological infrastructure and a traditional buffer zone. Their degradation highlights the vulnerability induced by disconnection from traditional environmental management practices.

Recognising the urgent need for mangrove conservation, initiatives like Indonesia’s “Mangroves for Coastal Resilience” project aim to restore and manage mangrove ecosystems to bolster coastal resilience and enhance the livelihoods of coastal communities. The Indonesian Government’s commitment to restoring 600,000 hectares of mangroves by 2024 marks a substantial stride towards addressing the threats facing these vital ecosystems (Aquino, 2022).

These initiatives reaffirm the importance of integrating traditional environmental knowledge into state-led ecological strategies. Recent coastal engineering research confirms the wave-reducing function of mangrove roots, supporting their role in ecosystem-based disaster risk mitigation (BADOLA and HUSSAIN, 2005; Mazda et al., 1997).

The traditional stories of Native American populations on the northwest coast, passed down through generations, associate earthquakes with the actions of supernatural creatures, such as A’yahos, often taking the form of a giant serpent (Ludwin et al., 2007). These stories have been passed down for over 1000 years and are still treated with great respect by the indigenous inhabitants, suggesting severe effects of the earthquake and tsunami on the coastal community (McMillan and Hutchinson, 2002). According to some studies, a tsunami in the period between 1690 and 1715 likely gave rise to this belief, possibly on January 26, 1700, when a wave reached the shores of Japan without being preceded by an earthquake. The most plausible hypothesis is that this wave was caused by an earthquake in the “Cascade Subduction Zone” on the western coast between present-day Canada and the USA (Dziak et al., 2021; Solow et al., 2019).

In Alutiiq culture, such paintings and associated stories were used to preserve knowledge of past events that had threatened the community (Bressan, 2018). Similar stories are told and documented through specific objects in almost all coastal populations of the Pacific Ocean, serving as genuine reminders to settle villages in sufficiently elevated areas to reduce the risk of wave inundation if they were to come from the vastness of the sea they face.

This example illustrates how material heritage (e.g. symbolic artefacts, settlement patterns) reinforces intangible memory. Together, they contribute to spatial planning practices that inherently reduce risk. Modern tsunami risk mapping and historical tsunami deposit analysis (Minoura et al., 2001) increasingly validate the spatial accuracy of these cultural narratives.

In mid-July 2022, a series of earthquakes occurred between Arica in Northern Chile and Arequipa, Moquegua and Tacna in Southern Peru, with a notable event reported on July 13 when a large “oarfish” (regalecus glesne) was captured, considered an ominous sign of an impending severe earthquake. This deep-water creature, known as the world’s longest bony fish, has sparked folk beliefs across the Pacific Ocean, associating its presence near the coast with seismic activity (Semana, 2022). Similar legends exist in Japan, where the fish is regarded as the servant of the Dragon King (Figure 1), with past sightings preceding significant earthquakes, such as the 2011 Fukushima disaster (Yamamoto, 2010). Despite media speculation linking oarfish sightings with seismic events along the San Andreas Fault in California, no scientific evidence supports this connection (BBC, 2013; Serna, 2015).

While the notion of earthquake-predicting oarfish lacks scientific grounding, it persists as a social reminder of vulnerability and uncontrollable natural forces (Orihara et al., 2019).

These disaster myths may not provide predictive accuracy, but they remain culturally effective in maintaining awareness and fostering a precautionary ethos. They act as symbolic sentinels that mobilise community memory, much like public drills or alerts.

Such disaster legends, prevalent worldwide throughout history, convey societal anxieties and uncertainties, serving as allegorical narratives that make unsettling aspects of reality visible (Gugg et al., 2019). In the contemporary era, these myths and legends offer effective forms of early warning by engaging specific social audiences and highlighting the importance of collective memory and communication strategies.

In times of crisis, affected communities often turn to religious rituals, such as processions and public prayers, seeking divine intervention to mitigate or overcome disasters, serving as both explanations and coping mechanisms (Gugg, 2023). Examining centuries of religious practices around Italy’s Vesuvius volcano, two main types of rituals emerge: “emergency rituals” and “commemorative rituals” (Gugg, 2014). The eruption of Vesuvius in 1631 triggered extensive emergency rituals, including processions with Saint Januarius’s statue in Naples (Figure 2), believed to calm the volcano through fervent supplications (Gugg, 2018). The collective memory of this event, sustained through the miraculous liquefaction of Saint Januarius’s blood, perpetuates the commemorative ritual, shaping the community’s identity and resilience (Gugg, 2023, 2014).

These rituals represent intangible heritage with powerful performative and mnemonic functions. At the same time, the routes of processions, sacred landmarks and sanctuaries constitute a tangible topography of protection, embodying a spatialised memory of risk.

Despite their apparent irrationality, these rituals serve as symbolic languages, transmitting memory, strengthening community bonds and preserving cultural heritage, illustrating the profound significance of religious practices in times of crisis.

Recent studies in social psychology and disaster sociology (Dynes, 2006; Perry and Lindell, 2006) confirm that collective ritual practices can reduce anxiety, reinforce social cohesion, and facilitate post-disaster recovery. Therefore, these expressions may be reinterpreted today as components of psychosocial resilience and community-based DRR.

Indigenous Services Canada (ISC) collaborates closely with First Nations communities in Canada to address the risks posed by seasonal floods, implementing tailored emergency preparedness and response plans (Indigenous Services Canada, 2023). In regions like Saskatchewan, ISC has integrated Indigenous knowledge to mitigate flood risks, employing strategies such as reducing snow cover and managing water channels. In Ontario, ISC-funded initiatives in Kashechewan and Fort Albany First Nations enable temporary relocation to higher ground during spring floods, minimising the need for evacuation to urban centres. Similarly, in Alberta, ISC’s inclusive approach involves full integration of First Nations communities into the emergency management system to enhance resilience against future flood events.

This example highlights how tangible measures (e.g. infrastructure for planned relocation) can be successfully co-designed using intangible local knowledge and seasonal indicators. Indigenous spatial planning, often informed by cyclical environmental understanding, aligns with modern adaptive strategies promoted in climate change adaptation frameworks (Indigenous Services Canada, 2023).

Scientific studies in hydrology and climate modelling (Pomeroy et al., 2016) have demonstrated the benefits of combining snowmelt forecasting with local observational knowledge to improve flood anticipation and mitigation in northern regions.

The severe flooding in the Lismore area of New South Wales, Australia, in February and March 2022 sparked controversy over authorities’ handling of the emergency, notably in Rosebank, where Coopers Creek overflowed, inundating the town. Indigenous communities hold crucial knowledge for managing such extreme events, emphasising the importance of respecting the natural environment and the wisdom of traditional practices. Indigenous perspectives view rivers as vital entities that hold truths and require care and respect, with the health of the river reflecting the well-being of the people (Costello, 2022).

This perspective reframes the flood not only as a hazard, but as a signal of disrupted ecological equilibrium. In this view, the river is a subject with whom one interacts, not merely an object to be managed – a relational ontology that informs ecosystem-based DRR.

This viewpoint aligns with Gugg’s reflections on Mount Vesuvius, underscoring the interconnectedness between humans and the environment, advocating for sustainable coexistence and ecosystem restoration (Gugg, 2021).

The notion that floods are symptoms of a “sick river” resonates with scientific research on riverine degradation, sediment overload and land-use change as flood risk multipliers (Allan, 2004). A convergence of indigenous perspectives and hydrological science can thus inform more holistic water governance and risk reduction.

The increasing frequency and severity of large fires globally have prompted a shift towards understanding the multifaceted nature of fire to better address the associated emergencies. Amy, a researcher at the Canadian Forest Service, underscores the importance of reclaiming indigenous fire management practices, which historically used controlled burns to maintain landscape health and support subsistence lifestyles. However, colonisation led to the suppression of traditional fire practices, contributing to the escalation of fire risks (Christianson, 2015).

Andrew, a firefighter with the US Forest Service, highlights the wisdom of Indigenous perspectives on fire management, emphasising the necessity of frequent, low intensity burns to mitigate the risk of catastrophic fires and maintain forest health.

This case reveals how traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) corresponds to preventive action now reintroduced by modern forestry services. Controlled burns, long dismissed as primitive, are now validated by ecological fire science as key to reducing fuel loads and regenerating biodiversity.

This growing recognition among professionals underscores the value of integrating traditional knowledge into contemporary fire management strategies, highlighting the importance of collaboration between Indigenous communities and modern firefighting agencies in addressing the challenges posed by wildfires (Avitt, 2021).

Recent studies in fire ecology (Fernandes and Botelho, 2003; Keeley and Fotheringham, 2001)confirm that low-intensity cultural burns can reduce fire severity and increase landscape resilience – confirming the scientific relevance of ancestral practices.

In Europe, there is a growing recognition of the necessity to revive eroded or lost knowledge surrounding fire prevention, particularly through the reintroduction of controlled burning practices (Figure 3) known as “debbio” in Italian. These practices, which have been used for centuries, are now being reconsidered as part of sustainable natural resource management and fire risk mitigation strategies (Sereni, 1981). The loss of traditional ecological knowledge regarding fire has contributed to the escalation of catastrophic fires, highlighting the importance of reintroducing low-intensity fires to reduce combustible debris build-up, nourish the soil and protect the tree canopy.

The tangible heritage of these landscapes – shaped by centuries of agro-pastoral burning – is a testimony to human-nature symbiosis. Their abandonment has coincided with more severe wildfire outbreaks, as demonstrated in the Mediterranean basin (Moreira et al., 2020).

Embracing indigenous perspectives on fire management, which view “cultural fires” as integral to landscape cultivation and biodiversity enrichment, provides valuable insights into achieving balanced land management and reducing the risk of extreme fires.

This convergence of historical land-use patterns and contemporary ecological restoration supports the idea of “pyro diversity” as a strategy for resilience, integrating cultural practices with biodiversity and hazard mitigation.

Collaborative efforts involving local communities and the integration of traditional practices into contemporary land management strategies are crucial for promoting landscape diversity, supporting traditions, and restoring a harmonious relationship with the ecosystem (Kimmerer and Lake, 2001).

In Namibia, the construction of local meanings regarding HIV/AIDS is deeply intertwined with indigenous knowledge and cultural perceptions. High school students in Namibia associate HIV/AIDS with indigenous names and symptoms, revealing derogatory terms and descriptions such as “prostitutes”, “bone disease” and “useless person” (Chinsembu et al., 2011). Understanding these indigenous perceptions is crucial for designing effective HIV prevention and management programs, as indigenous knowledge forms the foundation for sustainable solutions that bridge cultural beliefs and health practices (Nkondo, 2010).

These cultural interpretations, while sometimes stigmatising, also shape explanatory models and behaviours. Engaging with them critically is essential for building inclusive health campaigns that foster both scientific literacy and cultural resonance.

Cultural factors play a significant role in health-related patterns, with disease narratives shaped by individual schemas and explanatory models embedded in unique life circumstances (Garro, 1994; Landrine and Klonoff, 1992). Activation of students’ indigenous schemas is essential for processing new information about HIV/AIDS, emphasising the importance of integrating indigenous knowledge into educational initiatives to combat stigma, promoting effective prevention strategies (Armbruster, 1986; Chinsembu et al., 2011).

Public health anthropology confirms that locally grounded interventions are more effective than top-down biomedical messaging alone (Baer and Singer, 2018; Destoumieux-Garzón et al., 2018). This underlines the potential of indigenous cultural heritage in enhancing community-based health resilience.

Avian influenza, first described in Piedmont, Italy, in 1878 and later attributed to the type A influenza virus, has periodically affected poultry markets and wild bird populations, highlighting its highly contagious nature and zoonotic potential (Alexander and Brown, 2009). Frédéric Keck, an anthropologist specialising in poultry farming in China, suggests that anthropology, alongside other disciplines, can contribute to pandemic prevention by adopting the perspectives of bats or birds. Keck advocates for techniques such as using sentinel chickens, which, by remaining unvaccinated against avian influenza, serve as valuable indicators of pathogen presence, emphasising the importance of animal surveillance in disease prevention (Keck, 2020). Similarly, David Quammen suggests engaging in dialogue with bats to tap into their “indigenous knowledge” and better understand potential disease threats (Quammen, 2020).

These speculative approaches challenge traditional epidemiological models, suggesting a multispecies and intersensorial alert system. While metaphorical, they open space for novel biosurveillance strategies based on early detection from animal behaviour.

These approaches underscore the significance of interdisciplinary collaboration and indigenous knowledge in anticipating and mitigating future health crises.

Considering zoonotic spillover risks, One Health frameworks now explicitly call for integrating local ecological knowledge into global surveillance networks (Destoumieux-Garzón et al., 2018), confirming the relevance of these insights for contemporary risk governance.

This section explores traditional building techniques and spatial strategies developed in response to past disasters. To improve critical analysis, this revised version includes not only examples of successful adaptive designs but also failures and limitations that have exposed communities to risk. These insights aim to inform contemporary DRR planning through a balanced evaluation of traditional knowledge systems.

When devising DRR strategies in coastal regions, it is crucial to consider the potential hazards associated with volcanic activity, which can trigger tsunamis, earthquakes, landslides and rockfalls. The Baduy communities in Pandeglang regency, Indonesia, exemplify traditional building techniques rooted in local wisdom, designed to withstand natural hazards like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and tsunamis. Situated in a remote area of Banten province, their isolation has preserved their unique language, culture and solid connection to the natural environment. Pandeglang regency, located in western Java, Indonesia, lies in a complex tectonic environment prone to various natural disasters, including landslides, floods, tornadoes and tsunamis. Baduy construction methods use easily accessible bush materials, featuring houses with traditional long sloping roofs designed to shed volcanic ash and withstand its weight, thus reducing fire risk (Figure 4). Structures made of bamboo and rattan provide flexibility during earthquakes, while construction details eschew nails in favour of interlocking supports and pegs, ensuring resilience to seismic events (Firdaus et al., 2023).

The Regi Lagni, a remarkable hydrographic engineering project dating back to the fifteenth century, exemplifies effective flood prevention and land reclamation efforts in Southern Italy, particularly in the Campania Felix region (Liotto, 2011). Spanning approximately 100 thousand hectares (Figure 5), this network of canals, initiated during the Bourbon reign, successfully mitigated Clanio River floods for over four hundred years, significantly impacting the provinces of Napoli and Caserta (Pica et al., 2016). The primary canal, stretching 55 km and supported by 210 km of secondary canals, serves as a crucial hydrographic network, regulating water flow, preventing floods and ensuring water availability during droughts for the region’s 3 million inhabitants. Historically, the Bourbon Kings expanded and maintained the Regi Lagni, enacting regulations to ensure water cleanliness and healthiness (Alta Terra di Lavoro, 2020). Additionally, similar hydraulic regulation projects, like those found in Casamicciola Therme (Figure 6), have proved effective in preventing landslides and floods in fragile areas, showcasing the integration of traditional peasant wisdom with modern engineering solutions (Frattasi, 2022). Through the combination of historical infrastructure and local knowledge, these projects have safeguarded communities from the devastating effects of pluvial waters.

The earthquake of June 5, 1688, profoundly impacted Cerreto Sannita, causing extensive damage and significant loss of life (Franco, 1966). Witness accounts, including that of future Pope Benedict XIII, testify to the devastation suffered by the region, with thousands of fatalities recorded (Savoia, 1973). In the aftermath, Cerreto Sannita underwent socio-economic transformations, marked by population movements, and shifts in economic activities, with agriculture supplanting pastoralism as the predominant livelihood. The reconstruction efforts, spearheaded by influential families like the Carafas, commenced around the 1730 s, guided by a blend of Renaissance city models and emerging industrial city layouts. While early 18th-century construction practices lacked advanced seismic resistance knowledge, certain urban design features, such as wider streets and specific building arrangements, hinted at considerations for earthquake resilience. Notably, Cerreto Sannita’s post-earthquake organisation reflected a transition from Renaissance idealism to Enlightenment practicality, evident in the delineation of distinct urban blocks serving various social and functional purposes (Ciaburri, 1984).

The reconstruction of Cerreto Sannita after the 1688 earthquake exemplifies a convergence of feudal, urban planning, and royal interests driven by pragmatism and rationality. The town’s internal organisation, characterised by diverse block types catering to different societal needs, reflects this transitional phase from ideal city planning to practical urban design. Despite the lack of advanced seismic engineering knowledge, the town’s layout and building arrangements subtly incorporated elements aimed at enhancing earthquake resistance, showcasing an early attempt at disaster mitigation in urban planning. Through a pragmatic approach guided by reason, Cerreto Sannita emerged from devastation as a testament to the resilience and adaptability of its inhabitants and the strategic vision of its reconstruction planners (Ciaburri, 1984).

The city of L’Aquila, situated on a fault line in the central Apennines of Italy, has a long history of seismic activity, with six significant earthquakes recorded since its foundation in 1254. Geographer and historian Serena Castellani’s research highlights the resilience of specific public spaces in L’Aquila following seismic events, serving as socio-topic spaces where the community reappropriates its identity and participates in collective action. These spaces, including market squares and cultural hubs, play vital roles in facilitating the healing process and democratic engagement post-disaster. Castellani’s study emphasises the importance of urban planning and community engagement in fostering resilience and recovery in earthquake-prone regions like L’Aquila (Castellani, 2018).

Furthermore, the historical cartographic analysis conducted by Castellani identifies resilient public spaces in L’Aquila, such as Piazza del Mercato/Piazza Duomo and Piazza S. Francesco/Piazza Palazzo, which have maintained their significance over centuries (Castellani, 2021). These spaces, characterised by their strong identity and functionality, contribute to the city’s ability to recover and rebuild following seismic crises (Castellani, 2018). Additionally, legislative measures, such as the technical standards issued after the 1915 earthquake, aim to improve the seismic safety of buildings in Italy (Regio Decreto Legge n. 573 del 29/4/1915, 1915; Robinson, 1915). By integrating historical insights with contemporary urban planning practices and legislative initiatives, L’Aquila and other earthquake-prone regions can enhance their resilience and mitigate the impact of future seismic events (Castellani, 2018; Robinson, 1915).

Archaeological studies demonstrate the existence of seismic-resistant cultures in ancient times, employing construction techniques like wooden frame structures and metal reinforcements to withstand dynamic loads. Notably, certain periods and areas in antiquity prioritised anti-seismic construction techniques, potentially as a state policy, reflecting the influence of seismicity on building styles (Stiros, 1995). Within the Roman Empire, despite enduring significant disasters such as the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and the Great Fire of Rome, the civilisation adapted and thrived for centuries. Emperor Augustus initiated efforts to improve disaster prevention during his reign, signalling a shift towards addressing structural safety concerns (Toner, 2018). The construction techniques used throughout the Roman Empire varied widely, categorised into stone works and cementitious and walling works, each tailored to regional materials and evolving over time. Stone works included polygonal, ashlar and African masonry, while cementitious and walling works encompassed uncertain masonry, reticulate masonry (Figure 7), and brickwork, reflecting the diverse architectural approaches within the empire. These techniques showcase the ancient Romans’ ingenuity and adaptability in constructing resilient structures amidst seismic challenges.

Machu Picchu, constructed by the Incas in the 15th Century, stands as an exceptional testament to ancient engineering prowess, particularly in seismic resistance. Positioned amidst earthquake-prone terrain, the city’s strategic use of granite, sourced locally and meticulous stone arrangement reflect advanced seismic engineering principles (Arnaud, 2020; UNESCO, 1983). Using the rustication technique, wherein stones interlock seamlessly without mortar, Machu Picchu’s structures achieve remarkable stability, with joints so precise that even a knife blade cannot penetrate (Arnaud, 2020). This architectural precision, coupled with wider bases and thick walls, underscores the city’s resilience to seismic events, ensuring its enduring presence amidst challenging environmental conditions (Magli, 2010).

Ischia, an Italian volcanic island, has been marred by seismic tragedies, notably the devastating earthquake of 1883, which claimed over 2,300 lives and obliterated vast swathes of Casamicciola and Lacco Ameno (Polverino, 1996). This catastrophe marked Italy’s first major post-unification disaster, prompting the enactment of pioneering anti-seismic regulations, such as the “Building Regulations for the Municipalities of the Island of Ischia damaged by the earthquake of July 28, 1883” (Tobriner, 1983). These regulations advocated for innovative building techniques like the “baraccata” system, which used wooden reinforcements within masonry to enhance seismic resilience (Ceccotti et al., 2013; Tobriner, 1983). Notable figures like Minister Francesco Genala and scientist Giulio Grablovitz played crucial roles in post-disaster recovery, with Grablovitz pioneering geological studies and establishing monitoring systems for the island’s active volcanoes (Carlino et al., 2011). Today, experts recognise the enduring potential of barrack houses (Figure 8 and Figure 9) as an engineering solution for mitigating Ischia’s building fragility against seismic activity (Ceccotti et al., 2013).

The earthquake of 1905 in Calabria left a profound mark on the region, exposing the dire consequences of substandard construction practices and the urgent need for improved building standards to withstand seismic activity. With extensive damage to infrastructure and a staggering toll on human lives, the earthquake highlighted the vulnerability of Calabria’s buildings, particularly in rural areas where traditional agriculture dominated the economy. Peasant houses, constructed with inadequate materials and basic techniques, crumbled under the quake’s force, emphasising the necessity for resilient construction methods (Tiberti et al., 1967). In response to this catastrophe, Italy formed a commission that recommended seismic isolation techniques, such as building separation from the foundation with sand layers or rollers – a pioneering step in European seismic engineering (Kelly, 1986). Subsequently, seismic isolation gained traction globally, with architect Frank Lloyd Wright implementing these techniques in the design of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan, which proved resilient during the 1923 Tokyo earthquake (Kelly, 1985). Further advancements in seismic engineering introduced energy dissipation systems, exemplified by R.W. de Montalk’s patent for shock-absorbing mechanisms to minimise earthquake damage. These innovations have enabled structures to withstand seismic forces, as demonstrated during events like the 1933 Long Beach earthquake in the USA, where buildings using seismic isolation techniques fared significantly better than their conventional counterparts (Makris, 2019).

While traditional knowledge offers a rich reservoir of adaptive strategies, it is not infallible. Historical successes coexist with failures and understanding both is crucial for effective DRR. Modern science and engineering can validate, adapt and enhance traditional designs, ensuring they continue to serve in a changing world.

Anthropological and historical-archaeological research allows us to understand that local and indigenous communities’ roots in their environments have led them to develop knowledge and time-tested practices to prepare, mitigate, respond to and recover from disasters. Collectively, these are referred to as “local and indigenous knowledge,” which has gained increasing recognition in DRR. As demonstrated by Hadlos et al. (2022), communities mobilise many strategies, from risk predictions to livelihood-based adaptations, with research on these concentrated in middle and high-income countries. Efforts are being made to integrate knowledge (local, indigenous and scientific) and socio-political arrangements also tackling spheres of power (top-down and bottom-up) to promote collaboration (Wanzenböck and Frenken, 2020).

However, the results presented earlier in this paper demonstrate that these strategies are not abstract, but embedded in concrete practices related to local topographies, place names and collective memory of past disasters. For example, the case study on the “Baraccata System” in Casamicciola Terme (Ischia Island, Italy) illustrates how a traumatic collective memory – triggered by the devastating 1883 earthquake – was transformed into a vernacular building technique. This system, based on lightweight wooden structures within masonry frames, spread through oral transmission and community-based experimentation, showing how disaster experience can give rise to adaptive and culturally embedded solutions.

Indigenous knowledge is often referred to by various names, such as “traditional ecological knowledge”, “indigenous technical knowledge” or “endogenous knowledge”. It is associated with terms like “ethnic”, “folk” and “vernacular”. This variety indicates both the ambiguity of the object and its inherent richness. Therefore, it should be considered holistically, with all its facets and possible adaptations to specific cases. In other words, indigenous knowledge is flexible and, although still in its early stages, it is being recognised as valuable, especially in priority areas of the Sendai Framework (United Nations, 2015a).

Recent studies (Chapin et al., 2005; Rambaldi et al., 2006) have emphasised how indigenous knowledge systems can be systematically incorporated into hazard mapping, land-use planning and even digital risk platforms. In this sense, modern technologies can serve as tools to record, visualise and disseminate traditional risk-related knowledge, thus avoiding its disappearance. For instance, GIS-based platforms and mobile apps have been co-developed with local communities to integrate oral traditions with spatial data, enhancing both heritage preservation and risk awareness.

What emerges from the preceding pages is that local knowledge, both in an ethnological and historical-archaeological sense, reminds us of the essentiality of a more balanced relationship with the ecosystem to prevent and mitigate risks. Duca (2012b) emphasises that even environmental interventions, although often implicitly sustainable, can carry risks in terms of sustainability. Inappropriate transformations of the built environment can lead to the loss of local identity, making it impossible for future generations to experience the identity of the place as past generations did. When this loss of identity pertains, knowledge built upon disasters experienced by a community, the conservation of identity becomes a key issue for the resilience of the built environment. To avoid this possibility, it is important to understand the local perspective on the problem and the community’s relationship with its surroundings – how they name the territory and the terms they use to describe various precursor phenomena.

In this sense, our findings resonate with the work of Climate Change and Cultural Heritage Working Group International (2019), who analyse how cultural heritage and memory practices can enhance resilience by reinforcing place attachment and community-based monitoring of environmental changes. The integration of heritage-led approaches into DRR is gaining ground, particularly in contexts where vulnerability is not only material but also symbolic.

Indigenous knowledge is not the solution to catastrophes, but it is a valuable additional source of understanding and, to some extent, prevention or mitigation. When a disaster occurs, in addition to spatial, individual and community upheavals, the community always poses a profound question: “Who really are we?” Ariel Dorfman, a journalist and witness of the 2010 earthquake in Chile, believes that every crisis is an opportunity to reflect on how and when to rebuild infrastructure and houses and on “our precarious identity” (Dorfman, 2010). In other words, it involves addressing existential questions that allow us to rebuild the community and ourselves. Earthquakes, tsunamis, pandemics, or any other calamities that befall a territory and its community compel us to confront challenging and almost intimate questions: What is our territory today? What has it become in a couple of generations? What kind of relationship have the inhabitants developed with the ecosystem (Köllner, 2023). Moreover, indigenous knowledge is not solely passed down from previous generations; it can also emerge from direct or experiential knowledge, even though seemingly paradoxical avenues such as technical knowledge – a tangible and visible form of knowledge – and the local system of beliefs – an intangible form of knowledge deeply embedded and shared within a society (Zulfadrim et al., 2019).

Our empirical findings confirm that such experiential knowledge is still alive in everyday practices, including the interpretation of unusual animal behaviour, atmospheric anomalies and ritual responses to threat. These intangible indicators are often underestimated by scientific protocols but remain crucial in local risk perception and response mechanisms.

Recognising and incorporating local knowledge into emergency planning and communication with the population is therefore an imperative that public safety practitioners and local professionals cannot overlook. Indigenous knowledge, oral history and technical advances in land management and building constructions are not conflicting but rather complementary.

Several scholars (Mercer et al., 2010; Shaw et al., 2016) argue that the most effective DRR strategies emerge when scientific and indigenous knowledge are co-produced in participatory frameworks that also respect local epistemologies. This implies rethinking governance structures, planning tools, and even language used in official communication.

In general, experiential-based local and indigenous knowledge has a greater likelihood of being integrated with scientific knowledge. However, research and application in this field are still evolving, and the potential impact of integrated knowledge on DRR programs can further increase. The promotion of local and indigenous knowledge involves promoting the participation of local communities in combination with external knowledge, fostering a dialogue that encourages discussion, exchange, and democracy (Dunlap et al., 2023).

Ultimately, the case studies presented in this paper show that such dialogue is possible and productive. They support a growing consensus in the literature (IFRC, 2022) that indigenous knowledge should be seen not as a residual or folkloric element but as a living, adaptive and legitimate form of risk governance.

This paper has explored the historical and cultural interpretations of disasters, highlighting how these events have been perceived and managed across different eras. It has traced the evolution of the concept of disaster from isolated emergencies to ongoing processes that unveils societal vulnerabilities. This analysis emphasises the relevance of combining local intangible and tangible culture built upon disasters in sustainable urban development and resilience. By drawing parallels between historical disaster management and contemporary urban challenges, the paper provides insights into how past experiences can inform current strategies for urban sustainability and governance.

The emphasis on cultural heritage, societal activation and the balance between memory and resilience is particularly relevant to community engagement, urban resilience and innovation in the face of socio-economic and environmental uncertainties. Understanding how societies have historically adapted to disasters can guide the development of truly resilient communities within the resilience of their physical environment.

To translate these insights into practice, the paper recommends that urban planners and policymakers integrate historical and cultural knowledge into risk assessments, urban renewal projects and participatory planning frameworks. Engineers and infrastructure designers should consider traditional building techniques and local knowledge as part of their strategies for risk mitigation and adaptive design. Educational programs and public engagement initiatives should also leverage cultural memory to strengthen community-based preparedness.

However, this study is not without limitations. It is primarily conceptual and historical, and further empirical research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of culturally informed DRR strategies in diverse urban contexts. Future research could focus on comparative case studies across different geographical areas, or on co-designed interventions involving local stakeholders in high-risk urban zones.

In conclusion, integrating cultural insights into disaster management, land management and urban planning is crucial for creating inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable urban environments. As urban populations continue to grow, the lessons learned from historical disaster responses can help shape adaptive strategies that address the complexities of modern urbanisation and climate change. By offering targeted recommendations for practitioners and acknowledging areas for further inquiry, this approach not only enhances the resilience of urban centres but also fosters a deeper understanding of the cultural dynamics that underpin successful disaster management and recovery within the sustainable development goals.