Retailers as gatekeepers of the protein transition: commercialization patterns for plant-based meat alternatives in Europe

The global food system is under increasing pressure due to the ecological challenges associated with animal-based production, particularly beef, which remains one of the most environmentally damaging sectors (Mylan et al., 2023; Samad et al., 2025). To address these challenges, a transition towards plant-based (PB) diets, which are less resource-intensive, is considered an important step to reduce the environmental impact of food production and improve human health and animal welfare (Andreani et al., 2023; Samad et al., 2025). In this context, alternative proteins, particularly plant-based analogues (PBA), are a promising solution to mitigate the environmental footprint of conventional animal farming and support the shift towards more sustainable diets (Cheon et al., 2025).

Recent data indicate that the plant-based food and beverage market has reached €16.3 billion across major European markets (Circana, 2026). Compared to the previous year, Italy and Spain recorded a growth in PBA sales value of 7.6% and 6.6% respectively, throughout 2024 (Good Food Institute, 2025). Nevertheless, the category still represents only 2.4% of total food and beverage sales, suggesting substantial room for further expansion (Circana, 2026). At the same time, the food e-commerce market in the EU is experiencing rapid growth, with an estimated annual increase of 8.4% between 2024 and 2029 (Editions Dauvers, 2024). This growth is driven by three key factors: the convenience of online shopping, a broader offer of products, and competitive prices. This trend accelerated during and after the COVID-19 pandemic (Editions Dauvers, 2024). In established European e-commerce markets such as France, Germany, and the UK, food e-commerce penetration has steadily risen. In Germany, the market value of online grocery shopping grew by 19.4% in 2025 (Statista, 2025). Examining PBA within the e-commerce context enables the simultaneous analysis of two prominent trends shaping the contemporary food system: the expansion of online grocery retail and the growth of PBA consumption. The present paper focuses specifically on the online retailing of PBA.

Retailers are key actors in shaping food consumption patterns through their assortments, pricing, promotion, and positioning strategies. The growth of the plant-based market has created significant opportunities for retailers to commercialize alternative protein products, driving a reconfiguration of food offerings in supermarkets (Degieter et al., 2023). By influencing the accessibility, availability, and affordability of PBA, retailers play a central role in shaping their adoption and, more broadly, the transition toward more sustainable food consumption. Retailers shape availability through assortment and listing decisions, determining which PBA products reach the shelf or online catalogue. According to Bulah et al. (2023), the entrance of retailers in the PBA industry has prompted meat companies to enter as well, expanding the offer of products. Retailers influence accessibility through store placement, category visibility, and digital positioning. Finally, they affect affordability through pricing and promotional strategies relative to animal-based products (Samoggia et al., 2025; Zhao et al., 2022).

Academic research on PBA has accompanied the growth of this novel food category market. PBA are products crafted to replicate the sensory and visual attributes of animal-based foods to appeal to predominantly meat-eating customers. The strategic choice of imitating well-known products aims to avoid food neophobia and leverage familiarity (Andreani et al., 2023; Brooker et al., 2022). Past research has highlighted inconsistencies in the marketing strategies of leading PB food brands (Sucapane et al., 2021). Previous literature has shown that PBA are often accompanied by a variety of messages, especially health, sustainability, and free-from claims (Gerber et al., 2024). The variation in product listings across different stores suggests that producers and retailers adopt distinct strategies, emphasizing certain attributes while downplaying others, and ultimately shaping consumer perceptions and purchasing decisions.

Despite the expansion of the alternative protein market and the rise of online food shopping, existing literature does not investigate retailers’ assortment decision and commercialization patterns of PBA. Overall, the literature is predomintly producer- and consumer-centred. It addresses how PBA are positioned, formulated, labelled, and priced, but it falls short on examining how retailers translate these dynamics into concrete assortment and commercialization decisions. Research on retail assortment has so far focused largely on specific product categories such as milk (Mastromonaco et al., 2023), on the comparison with meat (Samoggia et al., 2025), or alternative proteins in general (Pagnanelli et al., 2025), overlooking a comprehensive analysis of PBA across both retail and e-commerce platforms. By addressing key gaps in the literature, this research aims to address two research questions. First, it analyses the assortment decision of EU online retailers by looking at the product characteristics of commercialized PBA. Second, it aims to identify patterns in commercialization patterns among European online retailers as conveyed through product positioning, information disclosure, and market differentiation. The present study offers valuable insights for both academics and industry professionals, helping retailers optimize their category management in an increasingly dynamic and competitive market.

Previous literature has mainly examined the consumer profile of PBA. PBA consumers are typically described as young, environmentally conscious, and highly educated (Zaleskiewicz et al., 2024b). Existing studies identify flexitarianism as a key demand driver, as it extends the appeal of plant-based products beyond vegetarian and vegan consumers and contributes to the mainstream legitimation of the category (Aschemann-Witzel et al., 2023; Sexton et al., 2019).

Research has explored the factors shaping the market success of plant-based food brands in Europe. Rini et al. (2022) highlight the importance of product-specific attributes, including quality, flavour, texture, design, and ingredients, along with promotional strategies such as targeted advertising and strong branding. Other studies showed that companies and retailers have adopted a range of marketing strategies to promote PBA, including packaging claims, guerrilla marketing, influencer collaboration, consumer campaigns, and price promotion (Gerber et al., 2024; Pagnanelli et al., 2025). Given the still limited literature specifically addressing the commercialization of PBA, this study builds on and integrates insights from the broader research on retailers’ and producers’ alternative protein commercialization patterns.

Two main narratives emerge from the literature when analyzing the PBA positioning: environmental and health narratives. The rapid growth of the alternative protein market is partly driven by the perception that these products can reduce the environmental impact associated with the production and consumption of animal-based products. This narrative has been reinforced by influential multidisciplinary scientific publications (World Economic Forum, 2019) and strategic corporate marketing campaigns (Dickson and Clay, 2024). Numerous life cycle assessment studies confirm that PBA have a lower environmental impact, particularly in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, land use, and water consumption (Andreani et al., 2023). Nonetheless, the environmental impact of PBA could be further lowered by process optimization, including advancements in machinery, process equipment, and the use of non-renewable resources (Smetana et al., 2015).

Companies market alternative protein products by emphasizing their nutritional benefits, such as high protein content and reduced cholesterol risk (World Economic Forum, 2019). Health was identified as one of the most influential factors in consumers’ choices of alternative protein products and as a significant driver for those who have not yet adopted these products (Beacom et al., 2021). However, the nutritional profile of alternative protein products remains a work in progress, with producers balancing the need to develop a sensory profile similar to meat while differentiating their products in terms of health advantages. In fact, to replicate the sensory qualities of meat, food producers often rely on a variety of additives during production. Concerns have been raised about the highly processed or ultra-processed nature of many of these products, especially PBA, which evoke consumer perceptions of unnaturalness (Andreani et al., 2023). Given this, effectively communicating a product’s nutritional and environmental benefits, when relevant, can be a powerful strategy for retailers to attract new consumers and encourage broader adoption. The existing literature documents these narratives largely from the standpoint of producer marketing and consumer perception. Yet, it does not establish which positioning strategy retailers themselves foreground, whether this varies across product categories or channels.

Familiarity with PBA encompasses sensory attributes such as taste, texture, and appearance. Research has shown that PBA producers are working to replicate the sensory characteristics of meat to improve consumer acceptance and encourage the adoption of these new foods (Andreani et al., 2023; Brooker et al., 2022). These innovations include mimicking fat marbling, enhancing texture, and using natural colourants to replicate the look of raw or cooked meat (Rubio et al., 2020). Despite great advancements in the sector, the literature highlights that achieving the texture and flavour of whole cuts of meat remains a challenge, which is why the PB meat products sold by retailers predominantly consist of ground or processed forms like burgers, nuggets, sausages, or crumbles (Nectar, 2024; Qaim et al., 2024). Yet, the observation that PBA assortment remains concentrated in processed formats such as burgers, nuggets, and sausages is treated in the literature as a technological limitation rather than as a retailer decision. Whether this concentration reflects supply-side constraints, retailer risk-aversion, or demand signals is not addressed.

Producers primarily formulate PBA products using soy, pea, or wheat proteins (Rubio et al., 2020), with soy playing a dominant role due to its high availability and favourable techno-functional properties. However, concerns related to GMOs, allergenicity, environmental impact of soy cultivation, and the need to preserve biodiversity have driven research toward novel plant protein sources, including fava beans, lupin, rapeseed, and hemp, which can be used alone or in combination with others (Andreani et al., 2023). The selection of plant protein is a strategic choice for producers, as research indicates that these ingredients significantly impact perceived sensory attributes and consumer acceptance (Caputo et al., 2022). Additionally, novel protein sources like microalgae, fungi, and insects are being explored as cost-effective alternatives, either alone or in combination with legume proteins, further expanding the landscape of sustainable meat analogues. Yet, it is unclear whether the diversification of protein sources that has been developing at the R&D and academic level is mirrored on retail shelves and whether retailers are interested in this innovation.

On-pack and online communication is a powerful tool to differentiate products on the shelf while conveying key messages (Brooker et al., 2022). Research indicates that consumers place importance on attributes such as protein source, secondary ingredients, organic certification, local origin, price, and fat content when choosing meat substitutes (Beacom et al., 2021). Sustainability-related claims are particularly influential and present (Gerber et al., 2024). Carbon footprint labels have been shown to increase plant-based product selection by 37% (Katare and Zhao, 2024). PBA display substantially more sustainability claims than animal-based alternatives, despite similar levels of health-related messaging (Gerber et al., 2024). Another highly used claim for PBA is the dietary lifestyle, with “vegetarian” and “vegan” being the most commonly used labels and more effective than the term “plant-based” (Brooker et al., 2022; Rosenfeld et al., 2022). However, Sexton et al. (2022) emphasize that the shift from “vegan” to “plant-based” is a strategic marketing approach aimed at shaping consumer purchasing decisions. Finally, nutritional claims, especially protein-related ones, are identified as a key marketing strategy (Andreani et al., 2023). Overall, the literature has mostly discussed labels at the brand- or product-level, rather than questioning how retailers curate, standardize, or differentiate information disclosure across their own assortments.

Previous studies show that the price of PBA represents a significant barrier to their widespread adoption (Springmann, 2024). Prior research emphasizes that PBA are often substantially more expensive than the animal-based food they aim to replace (Qaim et al., 2024). This has fuelled ongoing discussions about the need to make these products more affordable to increase competitiveness with animal-based foods (Brooker et al., 2022; Siegrist et al., 2024). In particular, the study by Zhao et al. (2022) highlights that PBA have a higher percentage of sales made through promotions, correlated with a notable rise in market presence. This demonstrates that retailers’ promotional strategies play a significant role in driving market growth. The grocery chain Lidl launched in Germany an ambitious initiative to achieve price parity between PBA and their meat counterparts, seeking to lower consumers’ economic barriers (Jahn et al., 2024; Lidl, 2023).

The present study analyses the product characteristics of PBA using data collected from nationwide online e-commerce retailers in a set of European countries. Online data collection provided efficient and systematic access to a large number of products and allowed to gather information directly from the product pages visible to consumers at the time of purchase. PBA include ready-to-cook or ready-to-eat products entirely or partially imitating meat products in format or shape (European Parliament, 2024). Data were obtained from product images and retailer-provided information displayed on each product's online page. To ensure reliability, data collection followed a predefined protocol based on a structured list of variables and a detailed coding system, which standardized how each product characteristic was recorded. The protocol was subject to review by the research team responsible for data collection. Following the incorporation of the team’s observations and feedback, the protocol was consolidated into its final form. The coded categories included product format, brand, ingredients, nutritional value, price, claims, cooking information, and package visual information. The adopted coding system and the list of selected online retailers are provided in the Supplementary Material, ensuring transparency and replicability.

Data were manually extracted by a team of researchers, with one coder each country assigned to each country. Before data collection, the researchers jointly reviewed the coding protocol and pilot-coded a common sample of products to clarify variable definitions and harmonize coding decisions. During data collection, the team held twice-monthly meetings to discuss ambiguous cases, cross-check coding practices, and ensure the consistent application of the protocol across countries, retailers, and coders. As an additional quality-control measure, a second researcher reviewed the full dataset to verify coding accuracy and consistency, thereby strengthening inter-rater reliability across the dataset. Any discrepancies identified were discussed with the responsible coder and resolved by consulting the original source data. The data collection of products was carried out in Spring 2024.

The sample includes 748 PBA products identified across 17 European online retailers based in Italy, Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands-Belgium. Country selection was designed to capture European markets with different levels of PBA market penetration and distinct food cultures. The sample includes leading PBA markets embedded in West-Central European food cultures (the Netherlands-Belgium and Germany) and emerging markets rooted in Mediterranean food cultures (Italy and Spain). Limiting the analysis to these countries allowed the study to ensure analytical depth and data manageability while preserving comparability across cases.

The data elaboration included four steps. First, an analysis of the PBA was carried out to explore the characteristics of each collected variable. The data collection identified 748 product listings, corresponding to 555 unique products. Of these, 455 appeared in only one retailer, while 100 appeared in multiple retailers, generating a total of 293 cross-retailer observations. For products with multiple entries, one observation per product was selected for steps 1, 2, and 3 of the data elaboration process to prevent data redundancy and to ensure the reliability and coherence of the analyzed data. Each product was uniquely identified by a code identifier, allowing the authors to identify duplicates. When products were listed multiple times within the same country or across different countries, only the listing with the lowest price was kept. In case the price was the same, the entry with the highest number of claims on the retailer website was kept. Quantitative data were assessed for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test and visual inspection of histograms. When quantitative variables were not normally distributed, results were reported as medians and percentiles, with the relative variation on the median. Categorical variables were summarized using counts and percentages. Correlational analysis was performed to identify relevant correlation patterns within the sample.

Second, the claims and packaging information collected were grouped using factor analysis. This step applies to the 555 unique products identified. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted with unweighted least squares and the Varimax rotation method. Several variables were excluded from the factor analysis as limitedly correlated with other variables (only one significant correlation over 0.300), such as sensory claim FOP, emotional and novelty claims FOP, and packaging claim FOP. Additional variables were excluded because of a low level of measure of sampling adequacy, as indicated by anti-image correlation below 0.600 (protein claim FOP, serving suggestion RETWEB and cooking time and mode FOP). Thus, 13 variables were computed in the factor analysis. Five factors emerged with an Eigenvalue above 1. Factor scores were computed using the regression method and subsequently used as input for the cluster analysis.

The third step included a cluster analysis aiming to identify commercialization patterns. The five variable factors stemming from the factor analysis were used in the cluster analysis. The analysis applied the Hierarchical Clustering Ward’s algorithm to define the optimal number of clusters, followed by the k-means method. Based on the interpretation of the results of Hierarchical Clustering, the optimal number of clusters was three. Once the optimal number of clusters was determined, non-hierarchical k-means clustering analysis was employed to ascertain which components were associated with each of the three clusters. Clusters were then analyzed to define differences among groups concerning product profile using Pearson’s chi-squared significance.

Finally, the authors performed an analysis of price variation for the group of products with multiple observations. To assess cross-retailer price variability, the authors computed the mean price, standard deviation, minimum and maximum price, and the coefficient of variation (CV), defined as the ratio between the standard deviation and the mean price. The CV was used as the primary indicator of relative price variability, as it enables comparison across products with different price levels.

This analysis applied to the set of unique PBA product listings (555 observations out of 748). The unique products are equally distributed between countries (Table 1). The national characterization of products is available in the Supplementary Material.

Chicken, beef, and pork are the three most mimicked types of animal-based products present in online retailing, covering over 80% of the products (Table 1), indicating retailers’ preference for familiar meat categories to facilitate consumer acceptance. Vegetable products are almost exclusively sold by Italian retailers (41.9% of the Italian sample), while the Italian assortment also includes significantly fewer pork analogues than those in other countries, particularly Germany (Table S.I – Supplementary material). Fish remain marginal across markets, highlighting room for innovation, particularly in countries with strong seafood consumption. Over half of PBA are concentrated in four main formats. This distribution reflects the alignment of standardized formats with established consumption practices and ease of processing. Overall, the results reveal limited variation in both animal analogue and product formats, alongside strong national characterization. Retailers appear to favour incremental innovation strategies that emphasize common shapes and tastes, reinforcing existing consumption habits. Furthermore, a strong association between animal analogue and format underscores this standardization (Table S.II – Supplementary material). Beef analogues are predominantly marketed as burgers and meatballs, chicken analogues as cuts and fillets, and pork analogues as sausages and sliced meat. Products without a defined meat flavour profile are mainly offered in burger format, confirming the burger’s role as a flexible and adaptable format that lowers technological and sensory barriers for both producers and consumers.

European retailers’ PBA assortment is highly dominated by branded products. Dutch and Belgian retailers offer the greatest amount of private label products, while Spanish retailers show the lowest. These differences reflect distinct national private label strategies and different levels of retailers’ confidence in owning the PBA category. With respect to product characteristics, private label PBA differ only marginally from branded products in terms of package quantity, recipe composition, and number of ingredients (Table S.III – Supplementary material). Private label PBA show a higher tendency to mimic beef and to adopt the burger format. The most pronounced differentiation between private label and branded PBA concerns the use of front-of-pack claims and price. Branded products rely more extensively on claims, particularly those related to dietary patterns, free-from attributes, and sensory qualities. Private label products are consistently priced lower and are less frequently subject to promotional discounts. This pricing structure suggests that retailers position private label PBA primarily on the basis of affordability, whilst promotional activity and claim-based communication are predominantly deployed as competitive tools for branded products.

Retailers adopt various categories for listing PBA online, with no unique and harmonized approach in PBA categorization between retailers. Most products are placed next to animal-based products, other vegetarian products, and ready meals. However, category use varies across countries: while Spanish retailers rely on “Fresh pasta and ready meals”, German, Dutch and Belgian retailers mostly use the “Meat, fish and vegetarian products” category, Italian retailers distribute PBA across multiple categories. In general, retailers limitedly use specialized categories such as vegetarian, vegan, and PB products, avoiding separating PBA from the animal counterpart. The limited use of dedicated vegetarian or PB categories suggests a deliberate strategy to avoid segregating PBA from conventional meat products, reinforcing familiarity and reducing perceived novelty.

Finally, most PBA are sold refrigerated, with frozen and fresh accounting for only 16.9%. The dominance of refrigerated PBA suggests that these products are positioned as fresh or perishable, mimicking the refrigerating status of conventional animal-based products.

PBA prices range widely, from 6.23 €/kg to 49,95 €/kg. German and Italian retailers predominantly offer lower-priced PBA, while Spanish retailers focus on higher-priced ones. This indicates that European online retailers position PBA both as budget and premium products, reflecting divergent national pricing strategies.

Price is moderately and significantly associated with private-label status, as private-label PBA are more likely to fall in the lower price range (Table S.III – Supplementary material). Promotions are limited (under 10%), with Italian retailers offering the highest number of discounted products, and Spanish retailers offering none. Promotions are primarily used for branded products, suggesting promotions as a tool to support higher-priced branded PBA.

Package sizes range from 30g to 750g, with most products sold in packages up to 180g. Spain stands out offering larger pack sizes. This suggests a standardization around small-to-medium portions, alongside country-specific adaptations in package sizing.

European retailers offer PBA with a diverse range of plant proteins, with soy being the most used, followed by gluten. More than two-thirds of products contain one or two plant proteins, indicating a predominant blended-protein strategy (Table S.IV– Supplementary material). Soy is most often used as a single protein source and shows strong negative correlations with peas (r = −0.411, p < 0.01) and other plant proteins (r = −0.402, p < 0.01), confirming its role as a stand-alone protein base. In contrast, gluten is strongly associated with multi-protein formulations, especially soy, highlighting its functional role in blending strategies (r = 0.549, p < 0.01). Overall, these patterns point to a dual product development approach, where soy supports simplicity and familiarity, while other plant proteins are used in blends to enhance texture, nutritional, or functional properties. The results highlight that the recipe may vary in terms of protein content based on geographical area (Table S.I – Supplementary material). Results support that while soy and gluten are widely used in products sold in all retailers, peas and other proteins are mostly used in Italian and German ones.

Retailer websites display a higher number of claims than front-of-pack labels, except for protein claims and certifications. Protein claims are the most used on front-of-pack and the third most common online, showing the necessity to legitimate PBA as valuable alternatives in terms of protein content. Dietary pattern claims (e.g. vegan, vegetarian and plant-based) are the most used online and the second most common on FOP labels. Cooking time and preparation mode information is also highly featured online, underscoring the secondary importance of additional practical information for consumers.

Overall, online descriptions enrich PBA with details on sensory attributes, environmental impact, and best serve suggestions. These patterns point to a dual communication strategy, where producers rely on the FOP label to convey core nutritional and dietary signals, and retailers use online platforms as complementary, information-rich channels that support consumer decision-making at the point of purchase.

PBA present in European retailers feature long ingredient lists, indicating a high level of formulation complexity. Nutritional values vary widely across products and countries, confirming the absence of a standardized nutritional profile. Median energy content is 198.00 kcal/100g, with moderate variation. Macronutrient composition was generally consistent, with median protein content at 13.00 g/100g and dietary fibre at 4.30 g/100g, supporting the positioning of PBA as protein- and fibre-rich foods. In contrast, carbohydrates and sugars show the greatest variability, suggesting differences in product typologies and processing approaches across retailers.

The claims and packaging information variables were elaborated using factor analysis, resulting in five factors (Table 2). These factors capture the five key communication dimensions conveyed through product packaging and retail websites.

The first communication dimension is “Dietary lifestyle” and captures the provision of dietary pattern information, highlighting whether products explicitly state their suitability for specific diets like vegan or vegetarian and dietary exclusions (e.g. allergen-free, gluten-free, soy-free). Retailers and producers using these types of claims position the product based on the consumer’s eating style. The second dimension, “Eco-credibility”, is defined by the prominence of claims related to environmental sustainability and official certifications (e.g. organic, fair trade, vegan, cruelty-free), whether displayed on the packaging or retailer website. This dimension relies on an institutionalized sustainability narrative of PBA aimed at reinforcing trust and legitimacy. The third dimension, “Health”, reflects the functional value of PBA by emphasizing nutritional claims, especially from the retailer website. Then, the fourth dimension, “Sensory and Novelty appeal”, is defined by sensory claims (e.g. taste, texture, aroma) and emotional and novelty claims made by retailers. This dimension communicates product attractiveness, aiming to reduce the perceived trade-off between plant-based foods and pleasure. Finally, the last communication dimension, “Food preparation”, provides practical cooking-related information, indicating an effort to lower functional barriers and support consumer competence. Overall, these dimensions reveal a multifaceted communication architecture in which PBA are simultaneously framed as healthy, sustainable, enjoyable, and easy to integrate into daily life.

The cluster analysis reveals that three different commercialization patterns are observed in European retailers (Table 2), each characterized by a different combination of communication dimensions. 213 PBA are characterized by a strategy focused on sustainability (Cluster 1 – “Sustainability strategy”). This observed pattern strongly emphasizes the environmental values of PBA playing on the sustainability narratives of alternative proteins and downplaying the individual consumer benefits such as health. In contrast, a “Dietary strategy” characterizes the commercialization of the second major group (205 products). The products strongly align with dietary lifestyle cues, including the absence of unwanted ingredients, while sustainability and health dimensions are less relevant. Finally, the smallest group of products (137) is commercialized by a “Health and taste-driven strategy”. This observed strategy exhibits a pronounced focus on nutritional benefits alongside positive associations with sensory appeal and food preparation, while distancing itself from dietary lifestyle and sustainability narratives.

The three commercialization patterns are associated with different product profiles (Table 2). Results support that a “Dietary pattern” is mostly adopted by Spanish and German retailers, whereas the “Health and taste-driven strategy” by Italian, Dutch and Belgian retailers. Products commercialized with a “Sustainability strategy” are characterized by a higher price. Private labels are mostly present in clusters 1 and 3. The “Dietary strategy” mostly commercialized products under 19.99 €/kg, branded, and mostly mimicking chicken and pork. The group of products associated with a “Health and taste-driven strategy” consists mostly of burgers and meatballs. Vegetable-focused items tend to be commercialized within the “Health and taste-driven strategy”. Regarding the type of protein used, the group of products associated with the last commercialization strategy shows a greater likelihood of containing soy and other plant proteins. A one-way ANOVA revealed a statistically significant difference in price across the three clusters. Results indicated that Cluster 1 showed a significantly higher price per kg than Cluster 3, while no significant differences were found between Cluster 1 and Cluster 2, or between Cluster 2 and Cluster 3. The effect size was small, suggesting that cluster membership accounts for a limited proportion of variance in pricing.

Overall, the results suggest that online retailers tend to offer a relatively standardized PBA assortment in terms of animal analogue, format, protein content, refrigeration status, and brand type, with some variation across countries. In contrast, the nutritional composition of PBA is highly variable, indicating that products that appear similar can differ substantially in their nutritional profile and formulation. Furthermore, retailers do not follow a single commercialization pattern, indicating that they leverage on a variety of product attributes and claims, with particular emphasis on sustainability, dietary lifestyle, and a combination of health and taste attributes, to target heterogeneous consumer segments. Thus, retailers are moving beyond a uniform sustainability narrative of PBA toward more differentiated and market-oriented commercialization approaches.

100 different PBA are present in more than one European retailer for a total of 293 observations (Table 3). The majority of products (59%) are reoccurring in two online retailers. Two-thirds of products are repeated within the same countries, especially in Spain and Italy. This result suggests that these two countries present similar assortments between different retailers probably due to a lower maturity of the market compared to the Netherlands and Germany. The result also shows the presence of a small group of PBA highly available in a high number of retailer chains and across all countries selected.

Results confirm that the categorization of the same product varies between retailers, confirming inconsistency between retailers in positioning PBA. Prices for the same product vary across retailers (Figure S.1 – Supplementary material), revealing substantial price heterogeneity. Only 17 products are sold at the same price, while the remaining products show price differences ranging from 0.12 to 13.89 €/kg. Although more than half of the products exhibit relatively stable pricing across retailers (CV < 10%), a subset of 10 products displays high price dispersion (CV > 21%). This pattern suggests that while some PBA are treated as standardized commodities, others are subject to retailer-specific positioning, potentially influenced by differences in promotional intensity, private label versus branded status, and local competitive dynamics. High price dispersion may also signal uneven price transparency in online channels and differing perceptions of consumer willingness to pay across markets.

The present study contributes to the literature on sustainable food systems by examining the assortment decision. The results highlight three key aspects that significantly shape the assortment decision of retailers: homogeneity in the offer, price differentiation, and product categorization.

First, a notable degree of homogeneity characterizes the assortment decision of retailers for PBA both within countries, especially Spain and Italy, and across countries. Consistent with previous studies, PBA predominantly mimic beef, pork, and chicken in familiar formats such as burgers, meatballs, and sausages, relying mostly on soy as the primary protein source (Brooker et al., 2022; Reis et al., 2023; Rubio et al., 2020; Siegrist et al., 2024). Brooker et al. (2022) suggest that a standardized assortment better resonates with consumers’ expectations and reduces perceived risk. By mimicking well-known foods, retailers strategically position PBA as practical substitutes for conventional meat in customary meals and social settings, such as barbecues or family dinners. The relative homogeneity of the PBA assortment is further corroborated by the presence of reoccurring products, reflecting two converging dynamics. On one hand, the comparatively lower maturity of the PBA sector in markets such as Italy and Spain may constrain assortment diversity. On the other hand, the cross-national reoccurrence of a limited set of products points to the growing consolidation of PBA industry around a small number of producers operating at EU scale, especially companies with a diversified portfolio of animal and alternative proteins (Reis et al., 2023). Such consolidation dynamics are not unique to the PBA sector but mirror broader patterns of market concentration observed across multiple food categories. Diversified companies hold a structural advantage thanks to logistic efficiencies and established connections with retailers. In the last years, conventional protein companies have strategically expanded their portfolios into PBA segment to secure market share ahead of anticipated demand growth (IPES-Food, 2022).

Second, the results reveal a significant price differentiation in the assortment. The high price variability, particularly for identical products sold by different retailers, highlights the importance of pricing as a core element of retailers’ category management. The diverse pricing approaches adopted by European retailers influence product availability and frequently frame PBA as a premium category, especially the branded-owned products (Newton et al., 2024; Rini et al., 2022; Samoggia et al., 2025). Reports confirm price as a crucial determinant for food shopping for European consumers, pressured by food inflation (Bobeica et al., 2025; EuroCommerce and McKinsey & Company, 2025). While previous studies have mostly called out PBA producers’ responsibility for pricing reduction (Newton et al., 2024), these findings suggest that retailers share responsibility for reducing prices to increase accessibility and sales. In this regard, retailers’ price-parity strategies, such as the initiative introduced by Lidl, and greater promotional campaigns appear particularly relevant for harmonizing PBA prices and improving affordability (Jahn et al., 2024). In addition, the present study confirms that retailers are expanding their private label assortment (Good Food Institute, 2025; Pagnanelli et al., 2025). Retailers deploy private label as affordable products in the PBA category, while positioning branded products as premium products with higher price points legitimized through more extensive use of claims, particularly those relating to free-from attributes and dietary patterns. This raises question over the future of the PBA category and whether retailers will continue offering both alternatives to consumers or pivot entirely towards cheaper private label PBA. However, price-reduction initiatives raise an important question: whether achieving price parity with conventional meat and seafood products is sufficient to drive a substantial shift in protein consumption, or whether PBA must become even cheaper than meat to reach widespread adoption (Jahn et al., 2024; Newton et al., 2024). While reducing the price gap is a critical step, price competitiveness alone is unlikely to stimulate demand. Taste remains a decisive factor in consumer choice, suggesting that PBA sales could benefit substantially from products that better meet consumer expectations in terms of flavour, texture, and overall eating experience.

Third, the study shows a lack of consistency in product categorization across countries, with Italian retailers distinguishing for a high level of incongruency in product categorization nationally. This observation aligns with existing literature, which has documented divergent approaches to online and in-store product categorization (Brooker et al., 2022). According to Piernas et al. (2021), placing PBA next to their animal-based counterparts can increase visibility and encourage trial among a wider consumer base. Conversely, other authors affirm that positioning PBA products in separate sections better resonates with request from vegetarian and vegan consumers (Pagnanelli et al., 2025; Zaleskiewicz et al., 2024a). This inconsistency may reflect the structural complexity of a novel category that is simultaneously trying to target a highly heterogeneous consumer base, ranging from omnivorous to vegan. Italian retailers may benefit from increased harmonization in PBA positioning, which could reduce consumer confusion and enhance the overall shopping experience.

The present study also investigates the patterns in commercialization patterns of the PBA category, providing insights into how retailers can support and accelerate the protein transition. The results show that retailers’ PBA commercialization patterns are differentiated. This result expands previous studies by highlighting that the use of diverse product attributes and marketing messages as strategic tools is not exclusive to producers but is common across the food chain (Brooker et al., 2022; Samoggia et al., 2025; Sexton et al., 2019). Three main commercialization patterns can be identified in line with the narratives highlighted by previous authors (Sexton et al., 2019). Sustainability is confirmed as a key attribute in the marketing and sales of PBA and is widely used by retailers to attract a specific consumer segment, the environmentally conscious one. The current findings confirm previous studies indicating that sustainability has been a primary driver of sectoral growth by stimulating consumers acceptance (Rini et al., 2022; Zaleskiewicz et al., 2024b) and retailers’ engagement (Degieter et al., 2023; Madre Brava, 2024). Dietary claims address a more practical dimension and are used to distinguish PBA from their animal-based counterpart (Brooker et al., 2022). They provide a clear message and indicate to consumers that, although meat-eaters and flexitarian remain the primary target group for PBA, these products are also suitable for specific diets. Health and taste claims, in turn, respond to two of the most prominent criticisms of PB substitutes: perceived inferior taste and concerns about unhealthiness, often associated with their classification as ultra-processed food (Gonera et al., 2024). Present results are in fact in line with previous studies highlighting the functional complexity and the wide range of nutritional composition of PBA, especially on protein content (Falkenberg et al., 2023). Overall, these commercialization patterns are particularly attractive to younger consumers who tend to prioritize sustainability and well-being in their food choices (Andreani et al., 2023).

Overall, the study confirms the coexistence of diverse commercialization patterns among retailers while relying on a quite standardized food product offer. The adoption of diversified commercialization patterns suggests that retailers are not targeting a single consumer segment but rather seeking to appeal to a broad and heterogeneous audience. Given that PBA remains a relatively nascent category, this diversified approach serves a dual purpose: expanding market reach and legitimizing plant-based products as a viable choice for the general consumer, not merely a niche segment. Several implications derive from these results. Retailers could benefit from greater consistency in the category management, especially by harmonizing prices and product categorization. Furthermore, the study reveals substantial potential for retailers to expand their PBA assortments through assortment differentiation, especially in Spain and Italy. Retailers could pursue diversification along multiple dimensions: broadening the range of distributed brands, investing in currently underrepresented segments such as fish analogues, and expanding recipe-level differentiation through greater variety in taste profiles, culinary traditions, and plant protein beyond soy. Such strategies would not only enrich the PBA offer but could also widen the consumer base by appealing to segments currently underserved, including consumers seeking for products adapted to local tradition or shoppers motivated by ingredient transparency and nutritional diversity.

There are limitations linked to the exploratory nature of the study. First, this study focuses on a limited number of retailer chains operating in a small set of countries. Although these retailers were selected for their high market penetration and broad availability of PBA, they may not fully capture the diversity of commercialization patterns employed across the European retail landscape. Moreover, while large retail chains play a central role in European food retailing, PBA are also sold through specialized and smaller chains, which may adopt distinct and potentially more innovative commercialization approaches. Second, the plant-based market is still a new and fast-evolving sector where new product launches are frequent. The present paper pictures the situation in the period of data collection. New studies could update the dataset and compare temporally the product assortment and commercialization patterns.

Future studies could address these limitations by examining retailer commercialization strategies through in-depth case studies of individual retailers. Such an approach would allow for a deeper investigation of the managerial decisions behind PBA category management, supported by qualitative interviews with internal decision-makers. Studies on retail commercialization strategies could be integrated with consumer studies to assess how consumers respond to different strategies and to sales data analyses to evaluate the revenue associated with each strategy.

Food retailers have a key role in shaping the European PBA market, influencing not only product availability, but also affordability, accessibility, and consumer perception. Through their commercialization patterns, retailers act as key intermediaries between food producers and consumers, affecting how sustainability-oriented food products are normalized within mainstream diets.

The findings show that retailers use diverse commercialization patterns to sell largely standardized PBA assortment. While this approach supports consumer acceptance and mainstream adoption, it also leaves untapped potential for some segments, such as fish analogues, and diversification of PBA assortments in terms of taste, recipe, and brands. Retailers’ strategies, reflected in product claims, pricing, formats, and formulations, favour familiarity and incremental innovation over diversification. These strategies emphasize claims related to sustainability, dietary lifestyle, health, and taste, alongside other attributes such as price, format, animal analogue, and recipe composition.

Overall, the study provides insights for retailers and food producers, highlighting opportunities to strengthen PBA commercialization and expand consumer reach. By selectively supporting more differentiated and innovative products, retailers could play a more active role in accelerating dietary diversification and the transition toward more sustainable food systems.

The authors thank the Food, Agriculture, and Resource Economics Laboratory (FARE-Lab), Alma Mater Studiorum – Università di Bologna, Italy, for the technical support in performing the research.

The supplementary material for this article can be found online.