Employing Design-Thinking to Create Opportunities for ECSE Teacher Candidate Reflection Through Infographic Design in an Online Course

Institutions of higher education are increasingly relying on distance technologies to prepare teacher candidates. In early childhood special education (ECSE), a field that focuses on working with young children ages 0–8 with delays and disabilities and their families, many of these distance technologies are being used to improve teacher candidate performance at the end of their course of study. “Bug-inear” coaching, for example, is emerging as an in-the-moment way to support practicing teachers’ use of effective classroom strategies (e.g., Artman-Meeker et al., 2017; Coogle et al., 2018). Feedback delivered via video and email is also being used to encourage practitioners’ use of targeted teaching skills (e.g., Barton et al., 2015; Marturana & Woods, 2012). What these methods have in common is an intent to improve teaching from a distance by inviting teacher candidates to reflect on their practice. According to Schachter and colleagues (2019), technology-mediated learning methods such as those described above can be “effective in fostering positive changes in teacher practices and child outcomes” (p. 397). Such approaches are not limited to teacher preparation programs and have been used to provide high-quality professional development to early childhood teachers across states (Stone MacDonald & Douglass, 2014). Less clear and not addressed in the above studies, however, is whether teacher candidates were (1) introduced to distance technologies in earlier coursework, or (2) given opportunities to practice reflective learning using online learning technologies in preparation for performance reflection. Given research on the limited benefits of one-time experiences on reflective learning (e.g., Joyce & Showers, 2002) and recent guidelines suggesting teachers of young children be “comfortable and adept in using technology” before being expected to use it (Schachter, 2019, p. 397), the need to provide teacher candidates with earlier opportunities to interact with technology that promotes reflective learning at a distance is a necessary first step.

Reflective learning is a means to engage ECSE teacher candidates in both interpreting and linking course content to one’s role and responsibilities in the classroom (Blanchard et al., 2018). Self-reflection in teacher education involves examining one’s beliefs and behaviors, with the possibility of modifying them to improve teaching and child learning (Gay & Kirkland, 2003; Winton et al., 2013). The process and practice of teacher candidate self-reflection develop through multiple opportunities across time (Kyles & Olafson, 2008) and is suggested to be a precursor to reflexivity or the “self-conscious consideration that can lead people to a deepened understanding of themselves in others, not in the abstract, but in relation to specific social environments” (Danielewicz, 2001, p. 155). Scaffolding teacher candidates’ reflective practice through coursework, combined with opportunities to reflect on key areas in practice such as diversity and assumptions, was found to be an important part of teacher preparation for diverse student populations (Liu & Milman, 2009). In experiences that use or rely on distance technologies with preservice teachers, Bentley-Williams and Morgan (2013) further offered that reflective learning in online courses mediated learners’ development of consciousness. Indeed, “opportunities to reflect” was listed as a necessary authentic activity in the redesign of an online scenario-based program of study for early childhood teacher candidates (Sheridan & Kelly, 2012, p. 74). Additional information is needed on how specific assignments in distance learning courses promote reflective learning (Gaytan & McEwen, 2016). In this article, we offer infographic design as one way to address this need in online coursework for ECSE teacher candidates. We share our design-based approach, including reflections and recommendations for developing the assignment.

The infographic (short for “information graphics”) is a tool used to present complex information in a simple form (Dunlap & Lowenthal, 2016). Effective infographics “apply visual organization and structure to reflect relationships, describe how parts of a whole interact, and/or reveal an underlying story” (Dunlap & Lowenthal, 2016, p. 44). To do this well, one must gather, synthesize, and communicate material that is efficient, precise, and clear. This process assumes the designer understands and is integrating relevant knowledge and will reflect on whether the visual representation accurately communicates knowledge to a focus audience.

Researchers have noted that infographic design promotes learners’ mental frameworks and skills. According to Dunlap and Lowenthal (2016), infographic designers experience enhanced “cognitive processing, learning, and future recognition and recollection” on complex topics (p. 42). Damyanov and Tscankov (2017) suggest the act of “composing” an infographic promotes visual literacy. To produce a simple form of knowledge or information, individuals must practice skills associated with cognitive modeling—interpreting, analyzing, assessing, concluding, explaining. Some researchers contend that infographic design can facilitate understanding of content better than traditional assignments, such as paper writing (Al-Mohammadi, 2017). Then, infographic design as a teaching and learning tool holds the potential to assess one’s understanding of information (Naparin & Saad, 2017).

Razzouk and Shute (2012) assert that “in many fields, knowledge is generated and accumulated through action (i.e., doing something and evaluating the results)” (p. 333). This idea presumes the actions needed to generate knowledge and evaluate its accuracy are clearly delineated, enabling instructors to effectively scaffold learning. Articles describing infographic design, however, present a myriad of ways to proceed with this process. Murray et al. (2017) shared six steps for creating an “engaging” infographic in the medical sciences: (1) target your audience, (2) use a compelling title to attract readers, (3) provide a narrative, (4) emphasize key messages, (5) balance images, charts, and text; and (6) limit the number of colors and fonts. By contrast, business researchers have suggested that effective infographics that aid in decisionmaking and operations guidance be developed through attention to three key areas: “content, usability, and overall visual appeal” (Zheng, 2016, p. 30). In education, researchers have proposed “good infographics follow a simple three-part story format: introduction, key message, and conclusion” (Naparin & Saad, 2017). Yet, the infographic format is not enough; the functional and efficient transfer of information depends upon “the quality and presentation” of each infographic (Naparin & Saad, 2017, p. 15). These resources suggest that infographic design involves more than technical skills, and they raise a question about the design process: What steps are involved or needed to design effective infographics in education? We turned to design-thinking to answer this question.

Design-thinking is a human-centered, “analytic and creative process that engages a person in opportunities to experiment, create and prototype models, gather feedback and design” (Razzouk & Shute, 2012, p. 330; Friedland & Yamauchi, 2011; Luka, 2014). The process involves envisioning possibilities through two phases: the identification of a problem and solution brainstorming (Welsh & Dehler, 2002). Concrete steps across these phases may vary depending on researchers’ orientation (e.g., architecture, business) and categorization of the work (e.g., spaces for thinking, concrete steps), but generally align with this 5-step sequence: (1) empathize; (2) define; (3) ideate, (4) prototype; and (5) test (Luka, 2014). We briefly describe each step below.

Step 1 involves empathizing with the audience to humanize the work. Friedland and Yamauchi (2011) contend that designers who understand the desires, needs, and beliefs of the “users,” or an audience who is experiencing the problem and may benefit from the solution, can engage in critical reflection needed to review, revise, and effectively adjust plans to meet the needs of the users. Step 2 involves defining the problem based on users’ experiences. Designers generate possible solutions in Step 3 (ideation) that may address or solve the expressed problems, while Step 4 (prototyping) involves the active creation of ideas and applications in the real world. In Step 5, testing, designers refine and improve solutions using information gathered during prototyping. Researchers have noted that this overall process promotes higher order thinking skills (Razzouk & Shute, 2012)

Although we present design-thinking as a sequence in Table 1, we acknowledge that researchers describe it as an iterative and cyclical process that promotes reflective learning in encouraging review and redesign with the audience in mind (Luka, 2014). Consistent with Meyer’s (2015) suggestion to emphasize how design thinking is used in practice, we illustrate our application of the design-thinking cycle in developing an infographic design assignment in an online learning environment for ECSE teacher candidates.

We employed design-thinking to create an infographic assignment for ECSE teacher candidates in an online graduate course. We present our process from our positionality as instructors of an online graduate course and for our end users who were graduate teacher candidates in ECSE. We begin with a description of the course and its users (empathize). We then share the aim of the assignment (define), our process for selecting infographics as a learning technology (ideate), steps we took to implement the assignment (prototype) and conclude with reflections on our experience (test).

We defined “users” as (1) the lead authors who were course instructors, and (2) the ECSE teacher candidates or learners of the new learning technology. We describe both groups and share a designprocess learning outcome for each group.

The authors conducted this work while at the George Washington University Graduate School of Education and Human Development. The lead author was an assistant professor in the ECSE program and instructor on record for the asynchronous course, Etiology, Symptomatology, and Approaches to Intervention With Children With Disabilities. Although the lead author had experience developing online assignments in hybrid courses, this was the first fully online course she developed and implemented. The second author was a master’s student in the education technology leadership program, who was interning as a teaching assistant with the lead author to practice instructional design. The second author’s work was mentored by the education technology leadership program director, Dr. Natalie Milman (e.g., Milman, 2009a, 2009b, 2013).

The authors, herein referred to as “instructors,” taught this course during the spring 2018 semester via Blackboard. Course content was shared through a variety of teaching methodologies, including PowerPoint presentations, recorded presentations, video presentations, class discussions, and group activities. Course assignments were intentionally designed to scaffold learners’ reflective learning across time by (1) reinforcing participation; (2) checking understanding; (3) gathering resources; (4) integrating content; (5) applying knowledge; and (6) reflecting on practice. Instructors structured a specific assignment, “The Planning Journal,” to be a space for ongoing reflection. Developing a technology-mediated assignment in this space to encourage learner reflection was a desired outcome for both instructors.

Learners enrolled in the course were graduate-level teacher candidates in the George Washington University ECSE program. The program prepared educators to improve the experience and success for diverse populations of preschool and elementary age children. Etiology, Symptomatology, and Approaches to Intervention With Children With Disabilities was a required course that provided learners with an understanding of the etiologies and characteristics of various disabilities; an understanding of various approaches to intervention; and the skills to integrate this knowledge with their knowledge of child development in order to work in interdisciplinary environments to develop effective programming for infants and young children with special needs. The desired learner outcome was to efficiently and effectively translate course information into everyday language and communicating it to families of infants and young children with special needs.

As instructors, we considered what learners needed to know and be able to do with course information, which meant thinking beyond course content to how the learners could apply information to practice. Recommended practices in ECSE states that teachers are expected to clearly and accurately communicate “comprehensive and unbiased information in a way that the family can understand and use to make informed choices and decisions” (Division for Early Childhood, 2014, F2, p. 10). Being able to explain information in everyday language is a cognitive task that depends on one’s ability to gather, synthesize, and organize knowledge in a simple way to tell a story was consistent with the aim of an infographic (see Infographic Design above).

In determining whether infographic design was the appropriate technology, we first reviewed the aims and evidence of the approach in education (see Infographic Design above). We also asked ourselves if we could structure infographic design as a design-thinking process in light of evidence suggesting it could promote reflective thinking. We considered ways to directly connect the experience to teachers’ practice and make it fun (Barnes et al., 2018). Recent evidence showed that 13% of teachers participating in online professional development did not use content to inform their instruction (Parsons et al., 2019). We also wanted to ensure the assignment was clear (Roddy et al., 2017).

We referred back to the ECSE recommended practice (“practitioners provide the family with up-to-date, comprehensive, and unbiased information in a way that the family can understand and use to make informed choices and decisions), and confirmed it to be an appropriate problem-of-practice for all learners. Our solution was to provide learners an opportunity to digest and “translate” complex information in a simple and unbiased way for families through infographics.

We then selected a space for learners to attempt this skill. The Planning Journal was an online space where learners explored and reflected on resources that would be used in a final assignment to develop programming for a young child with a disability and her family. Due every other week, planning journals encouraged learners to “digest” course content in manageable ways. Instructors included a learner outcome, the learner process, and a question to prompt reflection on the task. Instructions for the assignment can be seen in Table 2.

Equipped with a solution (infographic design), we reviewed the needs of learners, many of whom we knew anecdotally were new to online learning. We also considered the investment in time needed to support learners in using a new learning technology (Appana, 2008). We developed instructions to create an infographic and referenced strategies such as organizing it around a consistent concept and keeping it while designing subconcepts (Friedlander & Yamauchi, 2011). Table 2 describes the assignment’s expectations and parameters, while Figure 2 presents the following technical steps for creating an infographic: ((1) title; (2) plot main points; (3) descriptions; and (4) media. We used both to scaffold learner’s self-directed design-thinking abilities (Blanchard, 2018).

We reflected on the prototype (the overall assignment) in this final phase by considering the assignment purpose, our selection of the tool, assignment creation, and strategies to support learners. Our goal in using infographic design was to provide learners with an opportunity to practice reflection. We selected the infographic as a tool to scaffold learners’ gathering, synthesis, and presentation of complex information to a family audience. In reviewing the research on infographic design, we learned that the cycle of designthinking might be a useful way to structure the design-based process infographic creation requires. We also thought the process would be a practical way to build reflective skills in preparation for later clinical coursework. We thought about potential supports for learners and developed two tools to guide their work: an assignment description (Table 2) and technical instructions (Figure 1). Still, we believed improvements were needed.

First, in reviewing Figure 1, we had missed a critical step in the design-thinking process: determining the target audience! Was it reasonable to expect learners to design an infographic that was family friendly if we had not considered the intended audience as an explicit step in the design instructions? We had not connected the design action to the user (Friedland & Yamauchi, 2011), a skill that has direct implications for a teacher candidates’ ability to both effectively communicate dense information to families (Division for Early Childhood, 2014, F2) and later collaborate with families to support child outcomes (Bruns & LaRocco, 2019).

Second, we noted the use of visuals in the assignment description and technical instructions but realized we did not explicitly teach learners about how visuals could be used to connect information. Colors, images, and distilled information are necessary features in effective infographics (Naparin & Saad, 2017). To this end, we might have included concrete strategies to help learners think about how to connect information to effectively describe how families could access services for their child. Duarte (2008) shares visual forms that direct the flow of information: (a) flow (e.g., linear circular, divergent/convergent, multidirectional); (b) structure (e.g., matrices, trees, layers); (c) cluster (e.g., overlapping, closure, enclosed, linked); (d) radiate (e.g., from a point, with a core, without a core); (e) pictorial (e.g., process, reveal, direction, location, influence); and (f) display (e.g., comparison, trend, distribution) (as cited in Dunlap & Lowenthal, 2016, p. 44). Including detailed visual prompts may have been appropriate in a design-based course but seemed highly technical for a reflective journal entry focused on understanding the system of services available to young children with delays and disabilities. Still, including a prompt to consider types of visuals earlier in the design process (rather than as a last step), seemed appropriate for this work and aligned with the design-thinking cycle.

We revised the infographic design steps with these reflections in mind and share a brief rationale for their inclusion below. The revised instructions can be seen in Figure 2.

1. Select/assign topic—Topics may be provided by the instructor. In the event they are not, this prompt can focus learners’ thoughts around a specific area, preparing them to identify and distill information.

2. Determine the target audience— Knowing one’s audience is essential in communication. Identifying and audience can encourage learners to consider what to present and how. For example, technical language may be appropriate for professional audiences, while everyday language may be easier for families to follow. Children may appreciate vivid colors and shapes, while adults might be interested in a clear flow of information.

3. Outline content—This step helps learners identify topical information needed to tell a story, which requires an assessment of knowledge and review of resources, as learners gather and recall relevant information.

4. Determine layout—Learners use the information above to create a layout that is appropriate for the audience and presents relevant information. We invited teacher candidates to explore programs such as Visme or Canva that generate infographics based on how learners wanted to present the flow of information (e.g., cyclical, linear).

5. Assemble content—Learners build the final infographic here. Here, tips on types of visuals (e.g., Duarte, 2008) and programs (e.g., Visme, Canva) can help learners improve and refine the positioning of information to highlight key concepts and illustrate clear connections (e.g., linear process, relationships).

This work began with a question that emerged from our review of research on learning technologies being used in the ECSE field: What is being done in ECSE teacher preparation programs to promote reflective learning in online spaces? We shared our collaborative work in this article as one way to embed design thinking into the development of a learning technology in an online course.

Technology-mediated learning is a flexible and cost-prohibitive way to impart content knowledge and engage teachers in reflective practice needed to improve child outcomes (Schachter et al., 2019). While the use of technology is not new in ECSE teacher preparation, much of what is being used seems to be at a distance and to guide performance in later clinical coursework. There is some literature describing the development of online programming for early childhood teachers broadly; however, little is known about the planning process instructors are undertaking to create meaningful assignments in these online spaces. Instructors can use the design-thinking process as one way to consider the purpose, aims, structure, and supports needed to integrate new online learning technologies in earlier online coursework. Instructors might also consider embedding infographic design as one way to assess learner understanding and reflection in content-heavy courses that inform one’s later practice. We encourage instructors to consider the following points should they choose to include infographic design as a learning technology in an online space.

Due to time constraints, we were not able to gather learner feedback on assignment clarity. We encourage instructors to collect and use this information for redesign purposes, and to engage learners as participatory designers in their learning process (Druin, 2014; Koenings et al., 2013).

We invited learners to practice reflection with a broad question: Why would an infographic be useful in planning services to parents of a child who is newly identified with a disability? While this helped focus learner thinking around infographic design, it did not provide us with feedback on the clarity of the assignment, nor did it elicit questions about the content. Moving forward, we suggest including “questions” that prompt review of key ideas and themes from specific resources and “wonderings” to invite deeper, objective reflections on the use of the infographic product with the focus audience (Blanchard et al., 2018).

Finally, we invite instructors to extend our work to include design guidance for learners. Yildirum (2017) highlighted infographic features that may help learners design an effective layout (see Figure 2, Step 4), including the flow of information and use of visual components (e.g., concept maps, photographs, symbols, diagrams), types (e.g., static, animated, clickable). Sharing this resource (or others!) with learners is one option. Creating a brief online tutorial that walks online learners through an infographic design process or the use of infographic design platforms is something we chose to do, too.

Friedland and Yamauchi (2009) suggested that “technology can be a tool for learning design thinking” (p. 69). We presented infographic design as one way to provide ECSE teachers candidates with an opportunity to practice design thinking and reflective learning, meeting the need for this information in the ECSE field. We agree with Razzouk and Shute’s (2012) assertion that

We agree and suggest the interaction with technology must be sufficiently structured to guide learners through the process to promote clarity and reduce the risk of frustration for those new to online learning.

Simonson (2018) said, “the creation of new programs and different ways of providing learning opportunities is exciting and important business” (p. 76). For the ECSE field, the promise of online technologies to support teacher candidates is indeed exciting. We humbly share our experience as one way to facilitate both design-thinking and reflective learning in online coursework. In doing so, we believed we provided ECSE teachers with a creative yet structured approach to engage with complex content and think critically about using it to empower families and strengthen reflective learning.