The effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction: a study on Lebanese non-profit organizations Open Access

In addition to education and work experience, emotional intelligence (EI) is a key attribute in the workplace. Ashkanasy and Daus (2020) defined EI as the ability to manage one’s own emotions and understand those of others to reduce stress, enhance communication, increase empathy, resolve conflicts and overcome obstacles. EI enhances organizational productivity and supports both organizational and interpersonal goals (Ashkanasy and Daus, 2020). Similarly, Issah (2018) described EI as the ability to identify and mobilize emotions, understand others’ feelings and promote emotional and intellectual development.

The Goleman model, on the other hand, frames EI as a set of emotional skills, including; self-awareness, self-motivation, empathy, self-regulation and interpersonal-relationship management (Boyatzis, 2018). EI plays a crucial role in improving one’s understanding and application of personal skills (Prentice et al., 2020).

Research consistently shows that EI is closely linked to job satisfaction in the workplace. This study focuses on non-profit organizations (NPOs) in Lebanon, where emotionally charged environments, limited funding, and employee burnout heighten the relevance of EI. Lebanon’s protracted economic collapse provides a unique lens for testing whether EI continues to predict satisfaction under extreme stress. Job satisfaction, recognized as a cornerstone of a positive work environment, plays a significant role in enhancing employee well-being, motivation, and productivity. This relationship is particularly important in NPOs, where employee satisfaction directly affects the quality of services delivered. Consequently, the central question of this study is: “How does EI influence job satisfaction among employees in NPOs?”

This study offers originality by investigating the EI–job satisfaction relationship within the context of a prolonged economic crisis in a developing country – an angle rarely explored in the existing literature. By focusing on Lebanese NPOs during economic turmoil, this research provides novel insights into how external socio-economic stressors may alter established psychological relationships.

Emotional self-awareness is the first of five key areas in understanding an individual’s emotions. Jantsch et al. (2017) defined self-awareness as the ability to gain insight into one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviours, allowing for self-appraisal based on personal standards. In organizational settings, self-awareness helps individuals identify their strengths and weaknesses, understand their emotional triggers and improve interactions with colleagues, supervisors and subordinates (Clark et al., 2018).

Social awareness is a critical component of EI, focusing on understanding others’ feelings and recognizing different personalities. Serrat (2017) defined social awareness as the ability to appreciate cultural diversity and promote inclusivity in both the classroom and workplace. Key skills in this area include perspective taking, which allows individuals to assess situations from multiple viewpoints and empathy, which involves experiencing joy from others’ happiness (Issah, 2018).

Self-management is another essential aspect of EI, focusing on consciously regulating one’s behaviours, emotions and thoughts (Ikpesu, 2017). Brown and Lent (2019) suggested that optimizing self-management involves leveraging personal strengths, setting priorities, creating structured timetables, focusing on one task at a time and striving for efficiency in achieving both personal and organizational objectives.

Relationship management involves using self-awareness and social awareness to cultivate positive relationships and communication (Souri et al., 2019). Effective relationship management relies on developing skills related to self-awareness, self-management and social interaction. Arnold (2017) recommended focusing on communication, eliminating negative relationship patterns and fostering constructive behaviours.

Both Human Relations Theory and Institutional Theory emphasize that external force beyond individual traits like emotional intelligence shape job satisfaction. Human Relations Theory underscores the significance of workplace relationships, a supportive climate, and recognition in enhancing employees’ satisfaction and motivation. Recent studies confirm that perceived organizational support and a strong human relations climate significantly improve employee attitudes and readiness for change, leading to higher job satisfaction (Kanten and Ulker, 2021; Sinek et al., 2019). Meanwhile, Institutional Theory highlights how formal structures – such as labour regulations – and informal cultural expectations shape employees’ work environments and influence their satisfaction levels. Cross-cultural evidence shows that national institutional conditions, such as labour market flexibility and power distance, significantly impact how employees perceive and report job satisfaction (Gashi and Pugh, 2021; Čábelková et al., 2020). These theoretical perspectives suggest that job satisfaction is not solely a product of internal emotional capabilities, but is deeply shaped by relational climates and institutional environments – especially in developing or crisis-prone contexts such as Lebanon.

Job satisfaction refers to the feelings employees have towards the nature, scope, and rewards of their jobs (Amin, 2021). EI is another key factor related to job satisfaction, as it helps individuals understand themselves, others and their work environment (Al Khoury et al., 2020). Existing literature suggests a positive correlation between EI and job satisfaction, with some studies noting that certain moderating factors may influence this relationship. Organizational conditions that align with employees’ skills and capabilities tend to foster higher job satisfaction, supporting the idea that individuals perform better when their personal and work-related characteristics are well-matched (Khan et al., 2017).

Miao et al. (2017) also found that EI plays a significant role in job satisfaction and organizational performance. They noted that while EI can enhance job satisfaction through empathy, sensitivity and teamwork, it might hinder performance in more assertive roles. Most EI studies focus on for-profit or Western settings (Miao et al., 2017). Few address NPOs in developing economies, where emotional resilience may be constrained by systemic stressors (Khan et al., 2017).

Empirical evidence highlights the significant impact of employee job satisfaction, particularly in NPOs, on both individuals and organizations. Rose (2021) and Bano et al. (2021) emphasized that EI helps employees regulate their emotions at work, preventing dissatisfaction that might arise from negative feelings. Huang et al. (2018) found that employees with higher EI tend to experience greater job satisfaction, as they are more attuned to the emotional needs of their colleagues and address emotional concerns before they escalate.

EI significantly influences behaviour, particularly self-control. Individuals with high EI practice self-regulation and are able to delay gratification, which fosters strong relationships with co-workers (P Machera and C Machera, 2017). Burcea and Sabie (2020) observed that such employees are more adept at understanding co-workers’ emotions, building effective teams and improving organizational interactions.

Numerous studies have examined the relationship between EI, job satisfaction, and employees in NPOs. Riaz et al. (2018) found a positive correlation between EI and job satisfaction, demonstrating that EI fosters better relationships between employees and employers. Dartey-Baah and Mekpor (2017) showed that EI factors are strongly correlated with employee job satisfaction.

While many studies suggest a positive link between emotional intelligence (EI) and job satisfaction, a few have raised important doubts about the consistency and context-dependence of this relationship. Jordan et al. (2002) proposed that EI might not directly influence workplace outcomes such as satisfaction, especially when employees are under external pressures like job insecurity. Instead, they suggested that EI might act more as a moderator than a direct predictor might. Similarly, El-Badawy and Magdy (2015), in their study of university faculty in Egypt, found no significant relationship between EI and overall job satisfaction. Their findings further revealed that this relationship might vary across demographic groups, with age playing a moderating role: younger faculty members showed some positive association, while the relationship for older individuals was either weak or non-existent. These findings challenge the universality of the EI–job satisfaction link and suggest that individual and contextual factors, such as stress, insecurity, or generational differences, may disrupt or mask any potential emotional intelligence effects.

This study examines the impact of EI on job satisfaction among employees in NPOs in Lebanon; it is conducted between 2021 and 2022. The study employed a descriptive quantitative approach to summarize and interpret participants’ self-reported emotional intelligence and job satisfaction levels, providing a clear overview of patterns without inferring causality. This method allows for the structured and systematic collection of data, which is then analysed using statistical techniques.

The target population for this study consisted of employees working in NPOs in Lebanon. Five organizations were selected: Saint Mary Orthodox Organization, AL-Mabarrat Organization, SOS Organization, Al Makassed Association and Dar El Awlad Organization. These organizations represent approximately 420 employees each. A random sample of 60–100 employees was selected from these organizations to ensure representativeness and minimize bias. The selected organizations are considered one of the biggest NPOs in Lebanon and are distributed all over Lebanese territories covering almost the whole country, and the participants in this study were randomly selected, representing diverse roles, genders, and expertise levels, all within the Generation Y age group.

EI was assessed using the EI Self-Assessment by Goleman (1998), adapted by Harvard Business Review. This 40-item self-assessment questionnaire uses a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from 0 = never to 4 = always). Job satisfaction self-evaluation using a well-established a 5-point Likert scale that assesses various aspects based on Tlaiss (2013) in Lebanon. As self-reported measures, they inherently capture the participants’ overall perceptions and feelings, which are shaped by both internal organizational factors and external contextual influences. The surveys were gathered through google forms.

Pearson’s correlation coefficients were employed to test the hypotheses. This statistical method is suitable for analysing quantitative variables as it measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables using SPSS software.

This study adheres to ethical standards, ensuring voluntary participation, informed consent, and confidentiality for all respondents. All study participants provided informed consent and their identities were anonymized. The Jinan University Ethical Board granted approval.

As Table 1 shows, when asked if they were clear about their feelings at any given moment, 51% answered “often”. Regarding the importance of emotions in their lives, 69% answered “often”. When asked if their mood affected their surroundings, 49% answered “often”. For the question about explaining their feelings, 66% said “often”. When asked if their mood was easily affected by external events, 49% said “often”. Regarding their ability to sense when they were getting angry, 67% answered “often”. When asked if they could express their true feelings to others, 49% said “often”. Most participants (65%) reported they could describe their feelings easily. Finally, when asked if they could detach from their thoughts and feelings to examine them, 65% answered “often”.

As Table 2 shows, when asked if they accepted responsibility for their reactions, half of the participants answered “often”. The majority (71%) often questioned whether setting and sticking to goals was easy. Regarding emotional balance, 53% said “often”. Most participants (74%) reported being patient. When asked if they could accept critical comments without becoming angry, 54%. Regarding maintaining composure in stressful situations, 76% answered “often”. The majority (55%) said that if an issue did not directly affect them, they would not let it influence them. When asked if they could restrain themselves when feeling angry towards someone, 75% responded “often”. Regarding control over urges to overindulge in things that could harm their well-being, 57% said “often”. Finally, 68% said they often directed their energy towards creative work or hobbies.

As Table 3 shows, when asked if they considered the impact of their decisions on others, 57% answered “always”. Regarding whether they could easily tell if those around them were becoming annoyed, 75% answered “often”. When asked if they sensed when their own mood changed, 56% said “often”. When asked if they could be supportive when giving bad news to others, 73% said “often”. Regarding understanding how other people feel, 52% answered “often”. When asked if their friends could share intimate things with them, 36% said “often”. Regarding whether seeing others suffer bothered them, 55% answered “always”. When asked if they knew when to speak or remain silent, 68% answered “often”. Finally, when asked if they cared about what happened to others, 52% said “always”. When asked if they understood when people planned to change, 71% answered “often”.

As Table 4 shows, for the statement “I am able to show affection”, 57% of participants answered “often”. Regarding “I am able to manage relationships well”, 75% said “often”. Regarding “Sharing my deep feelings with others is easy”, 75% also answered “often”. For “I am good at motivating others”, 73% responded “often”. For the statement “I am a rather cheerful person”, 52% said “often”. On the statement “Making friends is easy for me”, 36% answered “often”. For the statement, “People tell me I am sociable and fun”, 55% said “always”. Regarding “I like helping people”, 68% answered “often”. Regarding “Others can count on me”, 52% responded “always”. Finally, for the statement “I am able to make someone else feel better if they are very upset”, 71% of participants answered “often”.

As Table 5 shows, when asked how satisfied they were with their current position, 78% answered “always”. Regarding satisfaction with their current salary, 43.2% answered “often” and 24% answered “sometimes”. For overall pay satisfaction, 41.5% said they were “always” satisfied. When asked about the value of their benefits, 51.7% answered “often”. The majority answered “always” when asked about their satisfaction with the number of benefits. Regarding satisfaction with the number of promotions received, 54% answered “often”. When asked about satisfaction with their career success, 68% said they were “always” satisfied. For progress towards overall career goals, 50% answered “always”. Regarding progress towards meeting income goals, 66% answered “always”. For progress towards advancement goals, 50% said “always”, and 64% said “always” when asked about progress towards developing new skills. Finally, when asked about overall job satisfaction, 52% answered “always”, and 44.3% answered “often”.

To test the hypotheses, we used Pearson correlation because both variables are quantitative. The correlation coefficient value ranges from +1 to −1, where a value of ±1 indicates a perfect relationship between the two variables. As the coefficient approaches 0, the strength of the relationship weakens. The relationship was tested with a 95% confidence interval and a 5% significance level:

Table 6 shows that for H1 shows a weak correlation between satisfaction and self-awareness, with a correlation value of 0.089 and a P-value of 0.069. H1 is rejected:

Table 7 shows that for H2 shows a correlation value of 0.007 and a P-value of 0.880. This indicates that these two variables are weakly correlated and not related. H2 is rejected:

Table 8 shows a low negative correlation of −0.004 and a P-value of 0.927. This indicates that these two variables are weakly and negatively correlated. H3 is rejected:

Table 9 shows a low negative correlation of −0.004 and a P-value of 0.927. This indicates that the two variables are weakly and negatively correlated. H4 is rejected:

The results of this study revealed no significant correlation between emotional intelligence (EI) and job satisfaction across all its dimensions – self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management – as well as the overall EI construct. All five hypotheses were rejected, with correlation values ranging from very weak positive (e.g. 0.089 for self-awareness) to weak negative (e.g. −0.004 for social awareness and relationship management), and none of the p-values indicated statistical significance at the 0.05 level. This outcome stands in contrast to the prevailing literature, which often reports positive relationships between EI and job satisfaction. The core originality of this study lies in its examination of this relationship within the unique socio-economic context of Lebanon, a developing country currently experiencing an extended economic crisis.

This study presents findings that contradict those discussed in the literature. Since 2019, Lebanon has faced severe economic instability, compounded by the global pandemic and daily roadblocks that have crippled the market.

The crisis began with a new government tax policy targeting various aspects of citizens’ daily spending and activities. This led to widespread protests starting on October 17, 2019, as people from all sectors of society took to the streets. The protests escalated into roadblocks across the country, severely disrupting the local market and preventing products from reaching stores, which caused many businesses to close. Economically, the situation was further aggravated by the high concentration of protestors in Downtown Beirut, Lebanon’s economic hub.

In the wake of these events, the value of the Lebanese pound (LBP) plummeted against the dollar. The situation worsened when the Central Bank imposed restrictions on cash withdrawals, sparking panic among the population. Despite efforts to stabilize the currency and support essential goods, the black market rate became a significant destabilizing force in Lebanon’s economy.

In addition, one of the main reasons for economic paralysis in the country was that fuel, oil, and gas merchants monopolized these products and purposefully cut them from the market. People began facing increasing challenges in acquiring fuel to commute to work, leading to a sharp decline in workforce productivity.

Fuel is the primary source of energy in Lebanon, and the absence of a sustainable alternative caused widespread power outages at work sites, severely disrupting operations. Some businesses resorted to purchasing fuel from black market suppliers, where prices soared daily. In response, many organizations had to temporarily cease operations until a resolution was found.

Compounding these issues, the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated Lebanon’s struggles. The first case was reported on February 21, 2020, and the subsequent outbreak led to widespread restrictions on movement, commerce, and industry. The Lebanese economy already in crisis faced even greater challenges due to the pandemic’s global impact.

The findings in this study diverge from those presented in the literature. While previous studies have shown a positive correlation between EI and job satisfaction, this study found no significant correlation between EI and job satisfaction. The lack of correlation may also stem from internal factors such as NPO leadership style, unclear performance metrics or limited organizational support – areas not explored in this study.

When a country faces severe economic, social, and political crises, the overall environment becomes highly unstable and disruptive. In such contexts, citizens are likely to experience a significant decline in job satisfaction, regardless of their organizations’ internal conditions (Gutiérrez Banegas et al., 2022). This is because external pressures – such as inflation, insecurity, unemployment and institutional breakdown – overshadow workplace dynamics, making it difficult for individuals to feel fulfilled or secure in their professional roles (Cech and Hiltner, 2022).

Economic, social, and political crises profoundly affect individuals’ psychological well-being and job-related attitudes, often decreasing job satisfaction. Employees may feel anxious, insecure and demotivated during national instability, regardless of their organizational conditions. Research has shown that external macro-environmental stressors – such as economic downturns, political instability and social unrest – negatively influence job satisfaction by increasing uncertainty and reducing perceived control over one’s career and livelihood (De Witte, 1999; Sverke et al., 2002). For instance, prolonged economic hardship can lead to job insecurity and reduced organizational commitment. At the same time, political instability often correlates with a weakened institutional framework, further eroding employees’ trust in long-term employment prospects (Ahmad and Ramzan, 2013). As a result, even in otherwise well-functioning organizations, the broader national crisis can create a climate where employees feel disillusioned and unsatisfied with their jobs.

The findings suggest that external macro-level stressors, such as financial instability, may suppress the impact of psychological and emotional capabilities on job satisfaction. Theoretically, this study contributes to the literature by challenging the assumption of EI’s universal predictive power and calls for a contextualized approach to organizational behaviour research. It also opens the door for future studies to explore how economic and environmental factors may act as moderators in the EI–job satisfaction relationship, especially in settings affected by prolonged crisis or instability.

This study contributes to the existing literature by exploring the unique circumstances of Lebanon and addressing research questions that reflect how specific settings and contextual factors influence outcomes. It highlights that NPO leaders should not rely solely on emotional intelligence (EI) when assessing staff satisfaction. Instead, policy interventions targeting pay equity and burnout may yield improvements that are more substantial.

Additionally, the study offers a valuable perspective by examining a developing country with its own cultural specificities. Unlike previous research, this study found no significant relationship between the variables, challenging existing findings in the literature. As such, the author recommends that future studies investigate different environments and contexts – such as developed countries or for-profit organizations – to better understand the impact of EI on job satisfaction.

Since no significant direct relationship was found between EI and job satisfaction, further research is encouraged to explore other contributing factors that might enhance job satisfaction. Expanding the scope beyond psychological dimensions to include behavioural aspects – such as job performance outcomes – could also provide a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics involved.

Finally, future studies should consider examining economic conditions as a moderating factor in the relationship between EI and job satisfaction. This recommendation arises from the current study’s observation that the findings do not align with the literature, suggesting that external factors such as the ongoing economic crisis in Lebanon may be influencing the results.