Mitigating the perils of transition to early adolescence, while also supporting the promise of this stage of human development, has been a major focus of middle school reform (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989; Jackson & Davis, 2000). As a result, there are many classroom-based educational programs that target the social and emotional development of middle school students. By comparison, the transition into middle adolescence, marked by entry into high school for most students, is a more recent focus of educational reform and relatively fewer educational programs target this developmental choke point (Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning, 2005a).
Middle adolescence, spanning approximately 15-17 years of age, hits young people at a critical stage in their physical, social, and intellectual development. At its onset, they are just completing the physical changes of puberty but continuing to wrestle with its socioemotional challenges. While their capacity for abstract thought is increasing, it is often clouded by the mood swings that characterize early adolescence. They still think mostly in the present rather than the future, struggle with their sense of identity, grapple with moral and ethical decisions, and feel keenly the pressure of their peers. At this point, their self-involvement becomes even more intense, fluctuating between high expectations and poor self-concept. In their quest to define themselves as individuals and exercise greater independence, they often experience conflict with their parents and grow more distant from them. At the same time, their need for greater intimacy and their increased sexual interest drives them to form strong relationships with peers and have greater reliance on them. They see having one or more close, reliable friends as tantamount, especially for weathering the changing of schools and ensuing shifts in social status and allegiances (Kaplan, 2004).
Ninth grade is a watershed year for students. In transitioning from middle school into high school, adolescents encounter a much larger student body, a more impersonal school environment, increased academic rigor, and fewer emotional supports. For the first time, their grades and discipline record will have a direct impact on their post high school options. Many freshmen are ill prepared for these challenges and fail to earn the credits necessary for promotion to the next grade level, thereby swelling the ranks of the ninth-grade class. In a study of ninth-grade retention rates in six states, more than 90,000 students repeated ninth grade in 2004-05, with nearly 3 in 10 students repeating ninth grade in one of states (West, 2009). Low grades also render many students ineligible to participate in school clubs and interscholastic sports, the very activities that might help give them a sense of attachment to school and motivate them to achieve academically.
This article has two main objectives. First, it will identify paradigms and research-based strategies designed to ease student transition into high school and help them reach developmental milestones in middle adolescence development. Second, it will highlight promising implementation models illustrated by real-world examples from high schools that are building an effective focus on freshmen transition.
What the Middle Adolescent Needs
During my 10 years of work in intervention programming for high schools, I have found two paradigms particularly helpful in selecting and/or designing strategies for meeting the needs of middle adolescence: (1) the “ABCs” of human motivation as described by Deci (1995) and (2) the Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Competencies formulated from research in the fields of psychology and education by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2005b).
Deci’s (1995) short but powerful book, Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation, outlines in compelling fashion conclusions drawn from multiple research studies he and others conducted on what drives human motivation. Deci asserted that the primary motivators in pursuing a given task were autonomy, belonging, and competence (ABC)–not the oft-offered classroom carrots of competition and external rewards. These findings ran counter to prevailing beliefs about student motivation at the time and spawned a movement that has affected all levels of K-12 education to varying degrees (Learning First Alliance, 2001).
Autonomy forms the basis for life-long learning. When students experience autonomy, they feel self-directed and motivated to pursue learning for their own reasons, rather than externally directed by teachers or others. From rich autonomous experiences, students develop a sense that they can pursue goals of importance to them and directly affect their own life. Educators can address student autonomy by emphasizing voice and choice. This includes providing opportunities for student-centered discussions and student-directed projects that encourage intellectual exploration and construction of meaning.
What does this look like in class? A student-centered discussion strategy I use begins with a think-pair-share activity in which students first think and write briefly about an essential question, and then share their answer with a student partner. Essential questions are designed to lead to enduring understandings, the “big ideas” of what students are studying (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998). After students have shared in pairs, the discussion widens to encompass the class. Using a discussion device such as a Koosh ball that designates who has the floor, students share what they and their partners discussed, and note when they are adding on to other students’ ideas or thinking differently from them. By passing the ball to the next speaker, students select who speaks next, rather than the teacher.
Similarly, project-based learning encourages students to formulate essential questions about a topic they have chosen within a given subject. They then research their topic, present their findings to the class, and field a discussion. These strategies encourage students to engage in more authentic, autonomous discussions and studies, rather than parrot back the answers or hand in rote reports they believe their teachers are seeking (Markham, 2011). The focus is on “What do I want to know, and what am I learning?” rather than “What do I need to do or say to get a (good grade/passing mark)?” Such strategies, especially when addressing real-world issues, help reach the authenticity bar which students set higher in middle adolescence.
Research that correlates school connectedness—feeling a sense of belonging in school— with academic motivation and achievement underscores the social foundation of learning. Students learn best in collaboration with teachers and peers, rather than in isolation, and they benefit from the support of their families. Having at least one caring adult at school from whom a student can draw guidance and support is key to developing school connectedness and staying in school (Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Resnick et al., 1997).
Encouraging students’ sense of belonging requires a shift in how high school teachers have traditionally viewed their role. It is not enough that they know their subject matter and how to teach it. They also need the knowledge and skill required to intentionally create a classroom environment that is safe, supportive and caring, and they need to get to know their students as individuals. This can involve facilitating development of a student-generated social contract for how class members will function in relation to one another, providing guided activities that mimic interpersonal aspects of the workplace, and problem-solving real issues and conflicts as they arise in class. Teachers can build supportive relationships with their students by practicing and modelling active listening, perspective taking, and empathy skills.
When students develop their skills and abilities, they increase their feelings of competence. A growing sense of competence is a strong motivator for continued effort. Teachers, who nurture the belief that everyone can grow and achieve through effort and hard work, encourage a “growth mindset” in their students. According to Carol Dweck (2000, 2006) someone with a growth mindset tends to maintain a sense of curiosity, approaches challenges with interest rather than apprehension, focuses on the task at hand, views setbacks and failures as indications to apply more effort, and values learning for its own sake. Essentially, they believe they can grow smarter through effort. By comparison, someone with a “fixed mindset” tends to believe intelligence is more or less fixed. This belief causes them to prefer repeating successes to taking on new challenges, seeing setbacks as indications of their failure, worrying about looking smart, and emphasizing grades and praise to boost their self-esteem. After assessing the mindsets of thousands of adults and school children, observing their reactions to challenging puzzles, and gathering school data, Dweck (2000) found that roughly 50% of the U.S. population fell into each camp and that the outcomes for each type of mindset strongly affected the subjects’ behavior and achievement. This was especially true when individuals encountered difficult challenges, setbacks and failure— what virtually all students experience at some point, but more so in adolescence. Dweck and her associates (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007) advocate teaching mindset theory in early adolescence and have shown promising results, prompting hundreds of districts and schools across the country to assign Mindset (2006) as required reading for staff. This work needs to continue into middle adolescence. Given the increased academic rigor of high school, which requires “must-pass” subject area high school assessments for graduation, addressing students’ underling belief about ability is perhaps the most critical task of freshman transition programs. Developing a growth mindset in students might also significantly increase social support for academic achievement within the larger student body.
Other classroom practices that encourage the development of student competence include academic goal-setting and self-monitoring, scaffolding skill development, and focusing on mastery learning by reaching competence at one level before moving on to the next. Having periodic check-ins with a mentor teacher or academic advisor greatly aids this process, helping to keep students moving forwards, rather than stalled, reversing, or dropping off the path all together. In addition, schools that develop, support, and recognize a broad array of competencies in students help encourage growth throughout the student body. In a growing number of high schools, the glass case of sports trophies is not the first or only display one sees upon entering the front doors. And student leaders do not just come from the narrow band of students who occupy the top 20% academically.
Student competence also needs a broader definition. In a survey of more than 400 employers that included executive directors, vice presidents, and human resource supervisors from a wide array of industries, employers were asked what they were looking for first in high school graduates, and then in college graduates. The top four skills for high school graduates and the top five skills for college graduates were character based and involved social and emotional competencies. These included professionalism and work ethic, teamwork collaboration, oral communication, ethics and social responsibility, critical thinking, and problem solving. The survey respondents issued a plea to high school educators to purposefully develop these personal and interpersonal skills and traits in students. Employers noted that the lack of these “applied” skills, rather than a lack of knowledge about the work required by the job, are the primary reasons that employees are terminated from their jobs (Casner-Lotto & Barrrington, 2006).
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning outlines five competency areas that are critical to success in school, the workplace, and life in general: social awareness, self-awareness, self-management, relationship skills, and responsible decision making (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2005b). Table 1 identifies the skills covered in each competency area.
Social and Emotional Learning Core Competencies
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Self-awareness—accurately assessing one’s feelings, interests, values, and strengths; maintaining a well-grounded sense of self-confidence Self-management—regulating one’s emotions to handle stress, control impulses, and persevere in overcoming obstacles; setting and monitoring progress toward personal and academic goals; expressing emotions appropriately Social awareness—being able to take the perspective of and empathize with others; recognizing and appreciating individual and group similarities and differences; recognizing and using family, school, and community resources Relationship skills—establishing and maintaining healthy and rewarding relationships based on cooperation; resisting inappropriate social pressure; preventing, managing, and resolving interpersonal conflict; seeking help when needed Responsible decision-making—making decisions based on consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, appropriate social norms, respect for others, and likely consequences of various actions; applying decision-making skills to academic and social situations; contributing to the well-being of one’s school and community |
Source: Adapted from the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning website at http://www.casel.org.
The most effective way to develop these skills in students at any grade level is through application of social learning theory that emphasizes the role of observation, practice, feedback and reinforcement in learning social behaviors (Bandura, 1977). In classroom instruction, this includes (1) identifying steps for enacting a social skill, (2) observing a model of the skill, (3) practicing the skill, (4) receiving feedback and reinforcement on skill performance, and (5) applying the skill in different settings. High school students are more apt to benefit from this learning strategy if they have a part in devising steps for enactment, take advantage of opportunities to apply the skill in real-life situations, reflect on these experiences, and make adjustments to how they perform the skill. These opportunities can be embedded in academic and/or service learning projects, or provided through courses and programs that focus on social and emotional learning, as discussed in the following section.
Implementation Models in High Schools
Within high schools, programs that address social and emotional learning, especially as it relates to academic engagement and character development, implement primarily in three models: a freshman transition course, student advisory, and academic integration. In order to target students at the most critical point in high school, I recommend a one-semester, credit-bearing course for freshmen, generically referred to as a freshmen seminar but often given its own branding by a school or district. Having a dedicated course tells teachers, students, and parents that this type of skill development is critical to success in school and beyond. It allows prep time for implementing teachers and provides the appropriate lesson dosage for students.
Through my work in schools, I have found that teachers of freshman seminars should have a proven capacity to connect with students and be comfortable with the concepts and strategies they will impart to them. Ideal presenters possess and apply many of these skills in their own life and see personal development as an ongoing, lifelong process—one that is both rewarding and enriching. Presenters, therefore, should be willing to work on skills they need to improve in themselves. This requires a certain amount of openness, humility, and humor on the part of teachers as they share the ups and downs of becoming socially and emotionally literate. Administrators should select presenters on this basis, rather than on which teachers are available to teach the course. Freshmen seminar courses should emphasize skills within the first three SEL competencies—social awareness, self-awareness, and self-management—especially in relation to developing supportive classroom communities, and positive academic attitudes and behaviors. Schools might also consider having upper class student leaders copresent with teachers in freshmen seminars in order to reap the benefits of cross-age mentoring and reduce bullying.
While freshmen seminars offer intervention at a critical transition, high school students need to continue to develop SEL skills that meet the developmental needs of the latter half of middle adolescent. For example, juniors and seniors might focus more on relationship skills and responsible decision making as they consider choices that will affect their adult lives: whether to graduate, go to college and/or work, become sexually active, and continue to live at home or move in with friends. The advisory model offers the opportunity to reach students across the grade levels.
Advisory usually consists of a noncredit bearing period, on average 25 minutes in length, that meets anywhere from once a month to every day, but is most effective when meeting at least two to three times a week. Advisory has its pros and cons. On the plus side, most teachers have an advisory group, creating a potential for schoolwide effects. Advisory also provides an opportunity for teachers to develop a mentoring relationship with a targeted group of students. In a looping model, advisory groups stay with the same teacher throughout the high school years, increasing the opportunity for deeper relationship building.
Because advisory includes teachers from all academic disciplines, the teachers may have more or less experience and comfort in facilitating SEL and student-driven discussions. To complicate matters further, advisory is noncredit bearing so schools rarely compensate teachers or require them to prep for it. For these reasons, advisory teachers can benefit from training and ongoing implementation support from a program coordinator who functions as a master teacher.
The third implementation option, academic integration, is often one favored by character educators. The wide variety of courses and teachers makes this model difficult to plan. However a few simple guidelines can give teachers of any subject a leg up. SEL skills and attitudes can be embedded in regular classroom activities. For example, at the beginning of class a teacher might highlight active listening as a skill students should consciously apply during group work. Towards the end of period, the groups can self-evaluate and then discuss as a class. Teachers can also cue students as opportunities arise, such asking them to apply a growth mindset to a difficult assignment.
Academic integration with subject matter holds promise, but usually requires ingenuity and creativity on the part of teachers. English, health, psychology, and writing courses are a good fit for SEL. For example, the play Romeo and Juliet, which is often taught in ninth grade English, offers ideal opportunities for discussing self-awareness, emotional management, resolving conflicts and personal decision making (Beland, 2007). History and government courses can also highlight problem solving and decision making and address the role and impact of social contracts at different points in history.
Conclusion
It is clear that the transition into middle adolescence and high school is a critical juncture in the lives of young people. While a small percentage of high schools have tried different reforms designed to ease this transition and engage students—such as, smaller learning communities, career-focused academies within schools, block scheduling—intervention curricula and programs are few and have received little evaluation funding. High schools and educational reformists need to look beyond the structure of schools and pay more attention to the skills and understandings students really need to prosper both academically and socioemotionally. Schools can do this by communicating to staff, students and parents the importance of SEL to character development and academic achievement, by offering opportunities for student voice and choice, by valuing the ability to facilitate SEL when hiring staff, by committing to ongoing professional development in SEL and student-centered practices, by dedicating a place in the schedule for freshman seminar, and by implementing effective across-grade advisories.
