Digitalisation of food supply chains: transformation factors for sustainable logistics in the digital era

Global concerns about food security have been brought to light by COVID-19 (Haji and Himpel, 2024) and the conflict in several countries (Kozielec et al., 2024). These have made clear how urgently revolutionary solutions, such as digitisation, are needed to create supply chains that are more adaptable and resilient. Conflict among some countries may affect food security. For instance, Russia and Ukraine are two significant global producers and exporters of grains, making up 17% and 12% of global wheat exports, respectively. Grains make up 51%, more than half of the global food consumption (FAO, 2021). Russia's and Ukraine's war might have a significant effect on both countries' wheat exports and output. There have been indications from satellite measurements that Ukraine's wheat production declined in the 2021–2022 season (Lin et al., 2023). More than 820 million individuals were found to be chronically food insecure, and 135 million of them were considered to be at a crisis level. According to estimates, during the epidemic, these numbers doubled (WHO, 2020). Given these factors, consumer behaviour has compounded the challenges confronting food supply systems (Sohag et al., 2023; Trollman et al., 2021). Additionally, many supply chain players worry about the chance of global supply chain disruptions caused by political conflicts (El Baz et al., 2025). These concerns about the conflict include possible transportation bottlenecks, increased freight costs and unpredictable delivery schedules, which impact supply chain responsiveness. Despite that, there is a lack of studies concentrating on how such geopolitical tensions could further disrupt global food supply chains (Odulaja et al., 2023).

Globalisation has fundamentally altered the way businesses function in the last few decades. The globalised world presents businesses with possibilities to expand into new areas and serve clients across the globe, but it also intensifies competition (Gangele and Kumar, 2025). Businesses quickly discovered that to continue reducing costs and maintaining their competitiveness, they needed to work closely with their supply chain partners (Qazi et al., 2024). The goal of supply chains is to maximise operational efficiency to deliver desired goods or services to consumers at the lowest possible cost and on schedule (Sarker et al., 2024). To minimise interruption risks and make well-informed decisions, supply-chain partners must exchange more information (Johnson, 2025; Kembro and Selviaridis, 2015). An information system can be put in place to enhance information sharing and, consequently, effective communication. Additionally, to achieve the right techno-organisational fit, many organisational and technological challenges must be controlled when enhancing information sharing and putting information systems in place within supply chains (Jussen et al., 2024). Nevertheless, less is known about the organisational and technological difficulties that come with putting these systems into place, particularly when it comes to developing countries. Multiple supply-chain actors, each with their own corporate culture, power and leadership structure, management techniques and information systems, must be integrated to achieve this smooth information-sharing (Hugos, 2024).

As a result of the quick development of technologies like artificial intelligence and machine learning, it is difficult for many supply chain practitioners to keep up with how supply chains will change and work in the future (Hartley and Sawaya, 2019). This is where the need for digitisation arises (Li et al., 2025). Previous studies have mostly concentrated on the advantages of digitisation for supply chains in rich nations; however, there has been minimal focus on how developing countries, like Jordan, may successfully adopt and reap the benefits of these technologies, especially in food supply chains (Díaz-Arancibia et al., 2024; Ofosu-Ampong, 2021). This study's originality is highlighted by a lack in the literature and its focus on developing nations' particular socioeconomic and technological obstacles while implementing digital supply chain methods. Technological progress facilitates and permits decision-makers to gather, process, evaluate, store and apply data with greater efficiency (Bahn et al., 2021). Digital supply chains provide many benefits, as organisations are now capable of anticipating and providing opportunities to meet customer demands by using digitalisation in supply chains. This can help them manage the supply chain speed, dependability and efficiency, plus provide them with a competitive advantage (Ardolino et al., 2025). Numerous cutting-edge technologies have been integrated into various supply chain operations, including the use of big data in activity planning and execution, the use of sensors, and automated vehicles in production, storage and logistics (Ansari and Ujjan, 2024). Moreover, efficient supply chain collaboration, timely information exchange, and real-time decision-making can help manage supply chain complexity (Ahmed Khan et al., 2024; Hrouga, 2024). Customers' perspectives have completely shifted as a result of technological advancements, and businesses are now obliged to alter the way they conduct business, particularly in supply chain operations (Di Vaio and Varriale, 2020). Over 70% of people globally use the Internet these days, and nearly half of them have access to social media. Customers require real-time information about their products or services as they are accustomed to using technology more than ever before. This demonstrates how implementing digitalisation in corporate processes can boost market share and provide advantages (Lammers et al., 2019; Nowicka, 2020).

Although the term “digitisation of the supply chains” is not new, in recent years it has gained popularity among scholars and practitioners within the new digital age (Büyüközkan and Göçer, 2018; Yu et al., 2024). Digitising the supply chain aims to deliver higher quality goods and services, better customer service and increased efficiency, resulting in financial, material and time savings. Although the shift from traditional to digital supply chains is becoming increasingly significant, little study has been conducted on the critical success factors that make this transformation possible, especially in developing countries like Jordan (Khalifa et al., 2021). This study, in particular, offers original and novel insights by examining the factors that are relevant to the digitalisation of Jordanian food supply chains. The study also attempts to provide a framework for critical success factors, which might act as a helpful guide for practitioners in developing nations looking to integrate digital transformation into their food supply chains. As such, the paper will begin with a brief review of the little available literature on this topic, the methods used for the research, the results and a brief discussion of these results, followed by a final conclusion.

In the business world, the digital supply chain's dynamism is becoming more and more prominent. Modern supply chains benefit significantly from improved visibility, which is critical for meeting the demands of customers through efficient tracking as well as the delivery of goods and services (Ardolino et al., 2025; Tripathi and Gupta, 2020). The urgency to mitigate value chain risks and obtain a sustainable competitive advantage, to mention a few, underlines the need for having digital food supply chain (Chen and Li, 2024). Nevertheless, traditional food supply chains have lacked traceability and transparency abilities, leading to a negative consequences on the chain's responsiveness to demands and creating problems with food safety and quality (Dora et al., 2022). As a result, several scholars have focused on investigating different technologies to address these issues, including blockchain technology (Khan et al., 2020), Internet of Things IoT, big data (Ben-Daya et al., 2019; Gill et al., 2017), wireless sensor networks such as radio frequency identification RFID (Ahamed et al., 2023), artificial intelligence (AI) techniques (Alnadi and Altahat, 2024; Pournader et al., 2021), computing technologies (Cricelli et al., 2024) and remote sensing technologies (Cancela et al., 2019). While these different technologies have generated valuable insights into the prospects and difficulties in the food industry, there is a significant need to examine them as a whole from an integrated standpoint.

The evolution of business supply chains is driven by new technologies, with digital supply chains still in their early stages of development. Nevertheless, many businesses have begun to digitalise portions of their supply chain operations (Nasereddin, 2024). Managers and decision-makers, therefore, need to have a clear road map and be aware of the key components of the digital supply chain transition to convert traditional supply chains into digital supply chains (Al-Banna et al., 2022; Moufaddal et al., 2019). However, to the best of our knowledge, there is a lack of research studies that investigate digitalisation supply chains and critical success factors, especially in the food industry. In addition, how the success factors interplay and also depend on one another remains poorly researched. Using Internet of Things (IoT) devices to track and monitor supply chain assets, products and activities in real-time (Ivanov and Dolgui, 2020), using blockchain for improved supply chain transactions, record-keeping traceability, security and transparency (Ray et al., 2024) are significant areas of interest.

Many challenges raised that might face agri-food sector, such as rising demand, limited resources and sustainability concerns (Chanchaichujit et al., 2024). It is clearly necessary to adopt modern technologies, as they play crucial role to address these challenges. Digital technologies can also improve the quality and safety of food (Bahn et al., 2021). For instance, it is obvious nowadays that farmers and food producers become dependent heavily on modern technologies such as IoT sensors, which enable them to make better-informed decisions on planting, harvesting and processing (Vahdanjoo et al., 2025). This adoption of IoT sensors can lead to increase productivity and reduce waste (Alam et al., 2025; Alladi et al., 2020). Additionally, farmers and food processors can benefit from AI and machine learning by using it to improve processing parameters, detect food safety issues more rapidly and create more accurate predictions regarding crop yields (Kler et al., 2022). As customers' concerns about food supply chain transparency and traceability rise, blockchain technology is expected to aid in improving food supply chain management, particularly as the cost of doing so decreases (Centobelli et al., 2022).

A roadmap for effectively deploying digital solutions in food supply chains starts with identifying key success factors. Digitising food supply chains can help meet the changing demands of stakeholders, regulators and consumers. Supply chain managers also need to integrate digital tools into their activities. These tools will increase efficiency, transparency and responsiveness of the food supply chain (Sarkar et al., 2025). These success factors also play a critical role in ensuring efficiency, sustainability and safety when using digital food supply chains. Academic research and best industry practices endorse the success factors.

Research highlights that the success of digital supply chain management programmes is influenced by several critical factors. According to Oriekhoe et al. (2024), traceability and transparency are key factors to improving food safety and quality by enabling end-to-end traceability and transparency in food supply chains through the use of digital technologies like blockchain and RFID (Beck et al., 2018). However, to make well-informed decisions and respond quickly, supply chain networks must integrate data and provide real-time visibility into the production, transport and inventory processes (Baycik, 2024; Hu et al., 2024). Organisations that seek to improve visibility into transportation activities and inventory levels adopt modern technologies like blockchain, RFID and the internet of Things (IoT), which are essential for enabling proactive management and real-time monitoring (Roy, 2021; Somapa et al., 2018). Additionally, real-time visibility considers a multitude of factors that may cause supply chain disruptions and helps manage them, such as weather, traffic, delays and congestion (Ahmed Khan et al., 2024).

Additionally, scholars point out the importance of creating networks and collaborative platforms that facilitate easy communication and cooperation between supply chain participants while encouraging innovation and agility (Hrouga, 2024; Nikneshan et al., 2024; Yu et al., 2024) and effective supplier configuration to coordinate the goals of all supply chain activities to enhance output and foster trust are vital (Cheung et al., 2021; Giannakis et al., 2019; Melnyk et al., 2022). Furthermore, attracting and training personnel with knowledge of data analytics, supply chain management and digital technologies are essential for innovation and digital transformation in food supply chains (Hasan et al., 2024). Additionally, investing in hiring and training data analytics specialists with backgrounds in statistics, data science and food supply chain management can help to generate insights and promote data-driven decision-making (Foroughi, 2021; Kumar et al., 2021). A further essential factor for digitalisation is ensuring adherence to food safety standards and laws by offering digital training and certification programmes to employees and other relevant stakeholders involved in the handling, processing, and distribution of food (Luo et al., 2018; Tortorella et al., 2025). Nevertheless, some organisations give priority to a small number of success factors that might be significant to advance in transformation journey; unfortunately, some managers potentially ignoring relationships that could impact the implementation process as a whole.

There is a scarcity of information about the success factors for the digitalisation of food supply chains; therefore, we adopted grounded theory methodology in this study. Grounded theory methodology focuses on exploring themes and helps to know the categories in the data through an iterative process (Corbin and Strauss, 2015). Employing grounded theory in this study also explores and explains the factors that comply to digitising food supply chains. In light of this, the researcher should take into consideration the crucial elements that aid grounded theory development: coding, constant comparison, memo writing, theoretical sampling, theoretical sensitivity and theoretical saturation (Saunders et al., 2019). The grounded theory methodology was used effectively in studies investigating digital transformation in supply chains. For instance, Kouhizadeh et al. (2021) studied the digitalisation factors in different aspects, including supply chain management and sustainability. It gives the researchers a systematic and emergent approach to collecting and analysing qualitative data (Charmaz and Belgrave, 2018). This systematic approach helps develop categories, which then develop to create a framework that is grounded in data (Connor et al., 2024; Corbin and Strauss, 2008). We utilised the NVivo programme to make the analysis process smoother. The researchers chose to mainly employ the two coding levels that Corbin and Strauss (2015) proposed: integration coding and open coding. According to Strauss and Corbin (1998), the gathered data is divided into conceptual units and coded with a label. We used the same code for comparable data units. Choosing one category to serve as the central idea and tying every other category to it.

The grounded theory approach adopted in this study fits the exploratory nature. In that, a qualitative, inductive inquiry design utilised to investigate the digitalisation of food supply chains. The researcher developed a structured plan to conduct the study and reach its aim. Thus, the research plan has sequential stages. It starts with intensive review of the relevant literature. This review was helpful in identifying the research gap and developing the main research question. Following that, it was crucial to prepare very-well for the data collection phase; before collecting the data, the open-ended interview questions were developed to yield participants experiences and perceptions from real-world practices.

The second phase was the data collection by conducting interviews with suppliers, logistics providers and retailers. Audio recording was used to ensure high quality. The researcher employs theoretical sampling approach to conduct interview with participants who had relevant experience. Data collection continued until theoretical saturation was reached, meaning that additional interviews do not provide new insights. The third phase planned for this research was on data analysis. The transcripts that emerged from the audio-recorded were organised in NVivo. This helped in organising the analysis process in systematic coding. The researcher starts the analysis process with open coding and advancing it into integration coding where related categories embedded into low-level themes. Constant comparison throughout the analysis enables discovering the similarities and differences in data and consistency. We are not imposing categories; we allowed the new concepts and category to emerge naturally. Memos were written to support the development of deeper conceptual understanding. The fourth stage represents using the participatory design approach where focus group workshop used to cluster low-level themes into core themes. Therefore, each core theme consists of several interconnected low-level themes. Finally, a framework of transformation factors shaping digitalisation in food supply chains was the output. Figure 1 presents the research process in several phases that starts from the literature and ending with integrated framework.

The researchers used interviews as a tool for collecting data. The interviews help the researchers explore points of interest and clarify and confirm meanings. In turn, the researchers can get valid and reliable data relevant to research questions and objectives (Masanja, 2024; Saunders et al., 2019). These interviews can be effective in collecting rich and detailed data from experts and practitioners in the industry. Unstructured interviews were conducted enabling the researchers to delve deeply and uncover fresh perspectives. Interviews were used widely to collect data in studies studying the digital transformation of supply chains. For instance, Kunkel et al. (2022) used interviews with experts to explore Chinese suppliers' insights about digitalisation and sustainable supply chains in the electronics industry. Participants are questioned by the researchers about specific situations that have occurred in their organisation. In answer, the interviewees explain their actions and motivations in that particular situation (Easterby-Smith et al., 2018). Therefore, the researchers can understand the reasons behind specific behaviour and the underlying causes of events. The researchers used open-ended questions, which helps in discovering the aspects of the workplace (Meitinger and Kunz, 2024).

To improve the quality of our research, the researchers take into consideration the following factors: creating appropriate questions to investigate topics, recording the interview on audio and taking notes as it goes forward (Saunders et al., 2019). Interviews were face-to-face to develop strong relationships with participants, which ensures high-quality data. We conducted 31 interviews consisting of the food supply chain stakeholders: suppliers (manufacturers), logistics providers (transportation companies or warehouses) and retailers (supermarkets or restaurants). The main research question was: What situations are necessary for a successful digitalisation in food supply chains?

Additionally, theoretical sampling was applied in this study to meet with experts in the industry. The participants interviewed were identified as having a high experience in digitalising food supply chains. The average interview duration was one hour and ten minutes. The interviews were conducted in English which was not an issue for the participants. The participants' literacy in English helped to save time in translation and ensure the quality of data, as the core meaning is conveyed as is. All the interviews were audio recorded which facilitated the process of data analysis through converting these records into transcripts.

According to Dil et al. (2024), the researchers who seek to use the focus group should use it once the topic to be explored is accurately defined. In our study, once we had the low-level themes we moved to the focus group workshop. With this tool, the role of the researcher is to facilitate the discussion among participants rather than lead the discussion (Carson et al., 2001; Krueger and Casey, 2015). The focus group was useful since the participants contributed to clarifying the aspects, identifying categories and offering insight relevant to each category. Using focus groups was proven in previous studies that investigate digitalisation and supply chains to be very effective. For instance, Hijazi et al. (2021) used a focus group tool in a study that analysed digitalisation in the construction supply chain to refine their findings, which ensured the relevance and validity of their results. The researchers in this study used focus groups to develop study results, which resulted in a detailed framework of digitised food supply chains. The experts in the workshop were asked to group the low-level themes into core themes. The question for participants was: Could you please group these low-level themes into core themes that facilitate the digitalisation of food supply chains? The workshop relied on five participants; the characteristics of the participants are illustrated in Table 1.

It was challenging for researchers to let all stakeholders meet at the same place and time. This coordination required high efforts towards communication to organise the workshop. Despite that, the advantages of a focus group were worthwhile, as we received insights into each participant's phenological view (Breen, 2006). The discussion in the workshop helped to elaborate on different perceptions and viewpoints which gives high depth to the topic (Sim and Waterfield, 2019). This process uncovered similarities and differences of viewpoint within the group, which helped to develop the core themes.

After conducting interviews with stakeholders in Jordan's food supply chains, a thematic analysis was conducted on the transcripts. The findings from interview analyses show 12 low-level themes that emerged from the iterative processes of analysis. During the interviews, the participants highlighted that the successful implementation of digitalisation in food supply chains in Jordan requires a high degree of consideration of factors related to the context of Jordan. The output of the analysis was used to develop Table 2. The table displays the low-level themes that enable successful digitalisation with explanations for each one. These factors are low-level themes which are not highly abstracted.

Having these low-level themes provides a highly detailed description for practitioners in food supply chains to successfully digitalise it. However, after having these low-level themes, the researchers continued data analysis to get experts' input on the study. A focus group workshop was conducted with experts to group the 12 low-level themes into high-level themes, which represent the success factors. Based on the focus group workshop that occurred with experts, they further refined it to six success factors that facilitate the digital transformations in food supply chains in Jordan.

Experts' perspectives were used to construct Figure 2. The low-level themes along with their explanations were presented to the participants in the workshop. They had detailed discussions around these low-level themes and the core categories that abstract them. These discussions helped in grouping the low-level themes into core themes. To summarise the results that developed from the workshop, see Figure 2.

Figure 2 shows the core themes which represent the critical factors for enabling digitalisation. However, these core themes provide a thorough framework that supports successful digitalisation within supply chain in the food industry. Each core theme consists of several interconnected low-level themes; the participants used the low-level theme numbers that emerged in Table 2. For instance, the core theme training was constructed from low-level theme numbers (2,5,7), see Figure 2. Based on the participants' perspective, the successful implementation of digital food supply chains requires a collection of these factors: training, collaboration and communication, management support and commitment, security, data integration, supply chain tracking and monitoring.

The emerging themes from this study clearly facilitate successful digital transformation in food supply chains. The study findings also contribute to the existing literature by providing a comprehensive framework that highlights the core factors and low-level themes that are necessary for successful digitalisation in the food supply chain. Previous literature usually focused only on single aspects of modern technology, such as blockchains, IoT and AI (Dora et al., 2022). However, this study combines and integrates several modern technologies, including IoT, AI, blockchain, cybersecurity and cloud computing. Moreover, previous studies often investigated the supply chains without focusing on a specific industry, such as service, pharmaceutical or food (Ageron et al., 2020; Singh and Maheswaran, 2023). Whereas our study focuses on a specific aspect, including the food industry, contributing by studying the issues and factors that might be unique for this industry.

Figure 2 reveals six core factors that enable the successful digitalisation of food supply chains, which were derived from workshop discussions that occurred on low-level themes. The participants in the workshop highlighted the importance of these factors, as they set out key areas essential for digital transformation in the Jordanian food supply chains. They also emphasised the vital role of training, management support and commitment. For instance, through training, the threats of cyber-attacks are reduced, and the ability to use modern technology is enhanced. They also pointed out that management support aids in creating an enabling environment and building digital competencies. The number of attached low-level themes with those themes indicates their crucial role in the successful digitisation of food supply chains. This aligns with the previous studies on the necessary role of comprehensive training and management support in the digital transformation journey (Amentae and Gebresenbet, 2021; Büyüközkan and Göçer, 2018).

Furthermore, this study's findings fill a gap in the literature by identifying the composite of low-level themes (2,5,7) under the core theme of training, emphasising the vital role of empowering employees with the necessary skills for using modern technology and building a learning culture. Sufficient training not only makes workers more adept with technological tools but also fosters an innovation mindset crucial for embracing technological innovation. Thus, high-level training for employees is a priority. Büyüközkan and Göçer (2018) confirm the importance of increasing the literacy of employees in using modern technology. Understanding the potential benefits of modern technology is essential in recognising the direct advantages and long-term influence on efficiency and sustainability (Amentae and Gebresenbet, 2021; Mahalik and Kim, 2016). Training should focus not only on technical skills but also on an advanced understanding of specific tools and platforms such as the use of IoT devices and blockchain (Jose and Shanmugam, 2019; Lianguang, 2014). This training initiative should be comprehensive by involving all food supply chain stakeholders to be effective (Duan et al., 2020). From the practical side, practitioners in the food industry can leverage these findings by implementing effective training programmes that develop employees' skills in digital applications and tools while also fostering a culture of continuous learning, adapting to change and experimentation; managers should ensure that employees are not fearful of making mistakes, and managers should be aware that mistakes are an inevitable result of the journey towards improvement.

In addition, Cooperation and Communication are the other two significant themes in the analysis. As indicated in Table 2 and illustrated in Figure 2, the theme is composed of 2 sub-themes (1,9). This result suggests that good communication is of high importance in a supply chain. Melkonyan and his colleagues (2020) contended with that by stating that collaboration and communication among supply chain partners are vital for the successful implementation of digital food supply chains. It allows for effective coordination, problem-solving and decision-making, which have a high influence on the smooth flow of food products and quality and safety across the supply chains (Jin et al., 2023). The trust aspect is also significant to ensure smooth information exchange, which can improve decision-making. Trust can also be a stimulus for collaboration. Yadav and his colleagues (2020) support the view that enhanced trust can lead to enhanced collaboration across the food supply chains since stakeholders have confidence in each other as a result of the reliability and accuracy of the information exchanged. In turn, having collaboration and communication organisations can navigate barriers of digitalisation with transparency and agility.

In addition, a core theme consisting of (4,8,12) low-level themes are referring to the Management support and Commitment high-level them, the leadership role to the digital transformation should be further advanced. When leaders develop a digitisation strategy explain the benefits of digitisation and wisely distribute scarce resources, they can successfully tackle the complexity of digital disruption. Zhong and his colleagues (2017) confirm leaders provide resources that are necessary to facilitate changes that support the implementation process. Thus, strong management support and commitment are essential to successful digital food supply chains (Amentae and Gebresenbet, 2021). However, some researchers argue that too much involvement from top management can hinder creativity and innovation in front-line employees (Alnadi and McLaughlin, 2020; Bashir and Masood, 2024; Juyumaya and Torres, 2023; Ur Rehman Khan et al., 2014). This can lead to some challenges in having agility towards market changes and low motivation and engagement in the process (Bashir and Masood, 2024; Juyumaya and Torres, 2023; Ur Rehman Khan et al., 2014). Thus, leaders should be balanced in their involvement to give employees some autonomy and empowerment which may increase the sustainability and success of digital food supply chains.

Another significant core theme that emerged is security which encapsulates low-level themes (7,11). With the increasing amount of data exchange due to increased levels of digitalisation of food supply chains in Jordan; using strong cybersecurity measures is necessary to avoid cyber-attacks and protect sensitive data. As digital platforms become increasingly interconnected, there is an increased chance of data breaches and cyber-attacks (Jin et al., 2023). Ensuring data security is essential in that organisations should safeguard sensitive information from potential trying to access, which can avoided be by implementing robust security measures (Amentae and Gebresenbet, 2021; Shirani and Micaela, 2015). One of the commonly employed robust security measures within online food supply chains is encryption, which ensures that the pilfered data remains safe from unauthorised parties (Khan et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2016).

During the interviews, the respondents also placed great importance on increasing employees' awareness towards data security and protection measures. This refers to a low-level theme which was indicated by the number 7 corresponding to Table 2. Through participants' perspectives in the workshop, they attached this low-level theme (7) with two core themes security and training. On the one hand of this lower-level theme is how people's behaviours influence data protection and the extent to which the implemented practices mitigate the potential for cyber and online threats; thus, the need for sufficiently high levels of awareness is crucial to build a culture of accountability for their cybersecurity practices. On the other, it is management that is responsible to increase workers' literacy through informing their workers how to responsibly use the new technology platforms to minimise the potential risk of cyber threats. Furthermore, the literature supports that the participants felt there was a connection between training and security. Some authors demonstrate that employee training programmes are essential to reinforce the importance of data security practices among employees (Ghazvini and Shukur, 2017; May, 2008). Organisations can foster a culture of alertness and responsibility for safeguarding confidential data by teaching staff members about potential hazards and data security best practices (May, 2008; Tenzin et al., 2024).

Data integration emerged as a vital core theme for facilitating the successful digitalisation of food supply chains. This involves the development of the online platform, mobile apps and data integration platforms to collect, analyse and synthesise data from various sources; see low-level themes (3,10) corresponding to Table 2. In digital food supply chains, data integration is more than just linking disparate information sources (Zhong et al., 2017). It entails the smooth synchronisation and integration of data from numerous parties, such as farmers, suppliers, distributors and retailers (Amentae and Gebresenbet, 2021). The essence of data integration is to leverage interconnected data which are considered assets and drivers in digital transformation, optimise processes and deliver value throughout the chains. Data integration is the foundation for adopting modern technology such as AI, and machine learning. This integration enables supply chain stakeholders to share accurate data, timely information, mitigate risks and coordinate activities. Similarly, real-time tracking and monitoring of the food supply chain are made possible by this data integration, which also improves inventory control, traceability and effective use of resources (Chopra and Pathrotkar, 2024; Dabbene et al., 2014).

As a critical factor that enables the digitalisation of food supply chains, this theme is often referred to as supply chain visibility as mentioned in the literature (Mahalik and Kim, 2016; Musa et al., 2014; Swink et al., 2024). We inferred from the analysis the importance of tracking and monitoring the flow of information and goods across the whole supply chain. Having modern technology can enable organisations to have the ability to track and monitor, and through real-time data gathering and analysis made possible by this increased visibility, supply chain partners can monitor the flow of food products from farm to customers' tables (Mahalik and Kim, 2016). Similarly, the results indicate that tracking and monitoring rely on two main pillars: real-time and traceability. Real-time refers to tracking of foods from the point of origin to final distention. The participants highlighted the role of modern technology such as RFID and IoT in giving information about the movement of products. For example, sensors can offer real-time information about temperature and humidity, so that the products remain within the required range during its flow in the supply chain (Musa et al., 2014). Our findings would suggest that having a traceability option in the supply chain also matters to consumers. Sounds good, but they want to know everything there is to know about the where the product comes from, how it was made and whether it has any certification like Halal, which is crucial for Muslims customers (Tieman, 2011; Tran et al., 2024).

It is clearly stated that this study makes various contributions. It adds to the literature by providing a comprehensive framework for enabling successful digitalisation in food supply chains. It also contributes to the workplace by providing actionable success factors that can be adopted by practitioners in the industry. As long as these success factors enhance the supply chain's capabilities in terms of responses and resilience, companies can respond to the challenges of digitisation and elevate their supply chain activities to a new level of responsiveness and robustness.

The study identifies transformation factors that enable successful transformation to digital food supply chains. The developed framework not only helps practitioners in its use as a guide but also highlights the interconnections and the significance of these factors in reaching the desired level of digitalisation. We discovered six core factors that were grounded in 12 low-level themes. The cooperation and communication role in facilitating the successful adoption of digital technology in food supply chains was illustrated in this study. Whereas food supply chain players should adjust to these technological changes by considering the emerged critical success factors.

Shifting from traditional supply chain to digitalised can be beneficial for many organisations by increasing their competitiveness and logistics activities efficiency. In addition, it is clearly seen that many organisations across the supply chain invest in modern technology, which shows the vital role of digitalisation in the food industry. This digitalisation can make significant contributions to the food industry and logistics; it contributes to many aspects such as farming, producing, packaging and distribution of food products. It makes organisations more efficient in identifying customers' needs and creating value for customers. For instance, the new technologies that emerged recently, like AI and IoT allow organisations to be more capable of identifying customers’ needs and creating value that satisfies customers. Also, digitising food supply chains can enhance organisations' capacity to respond to demand and the fluctuations that might occur due to political uncertainty, especially in the Middle East. Those political uncertainties can disrupt food supply chains for organisations working in Jordan due to conflicts.

The theoretical implications of this study are divergent. The results that emerged established a new theoretical framework that boosts the successful transformation to digitalisation processes in food supply chains. This framework presents various concepts from different areas, such as supply chain management, organisational change management and technology adoption. The study also expands on theoretical knowledge by identifying core factors and low-level themes critical for digital transformation, providing supply chain managers with an approach to enable successful digital transformation. The success of this process requires qualified human resources availability that requires effective training.

However, this study provides significant practical implications for practitioners. The results that emerged from this study provide the necessary guidance for practitioners to take into account while embracing disruptive technologies such as cloud computing, AI, machine learning and blockchain technology. This guidance, embedded in the detailed framework developed in this study, highlights the critical success factors for the successful digitalisation of food supply chains. For instance, the emerging framework emphasises the importance of human abilities and the need for periodic training and management commitment. Additionally, the emerged framework in Figure 2 beneficial for different supply chain players to improve effective communication and synchronisation among them.

The main limitation of this study is that it focuses on Jordanian companies, which entails that the generalisation of this study is limited to countries similar to Jordan, such as Saudi Arabia and Egypt. This study also does not address particular modern technologies that might require different factors to enable successful adoption. Further research is also needed promptly for other countries in the Middle East region to enable researchers to make comparisons and develop a comprehensive model. Further research is needed to understand the specific needs and challenges of countries in the Middle East region when it comes to digitalising food supply chains (Haji et al., 2020). Moreover, future work can investigate on inhibiting factors for developing mitigating strategies for these risks and overcoming these challenges. Future research also might examine how digitalising food supply chains affects environmental aspects and sustainability (Jin et al., 2023; Le, 2023). Further research in this direction can lead to smoother and more efficient digitalised food supply chains.