Balancing thrill, risk and sustainability: an optimal arousal perspective on space tourism intentions

Space tourism is rapidly transitioning from a futuristic concept to a commercially viable sector, fueled by advancements in aerospace technology and increasing private sector investments (Presenza et al., 2023). Unlike traditional tourism, which is often rooted in cultural, natural, or leisure-based experiences, space tourism offers an unparalleled and highly stimulating journey beyond Earth’s atmosphere (Ormrod and Dickens, 2019). Travelers can experience weightlessness, witness the Earth from orbit, and engage in an entirely new dimension of adventure travel. Leading aerospace companies such as SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Virgin Galactic are at the forefront of this movement, leveraging reusable rocket technology to reduce costs and enhance accessibility (Chang, 2015). However, despite its growing appeal, space tourism remains an emerging and largely unexplored domain, facing challenges such as safety risks, financial barriers, and environmental concerns (Zhang, 2024).

A critical factor in the commercialization of space tourism is understanding the psychological motivations that drive consumer interest and behavioral intentions (Mehran et al., 2023). Traditional tourism research has identified various motivational factors, including novelty seeking, sensation seeking, and adventure seeking, as key drivers of travel behavior (Zhang et al., 2021). Space tourism, as the most extreme form of travel, aligns with these psychological needs, yet little research has explored how these motivations influence attitudes toward space tourism within a structured theoretical framework. Optimal arousal theory (Wang et al., 2020), provides a useful lens for examining this phenomenon, suggesting that individuals seek experiences that help them achieve an ideal level of mental and sensory stimulation (Bandhu et al., 2024). Given the highly novel and intensely stimulating nature of space travel, this theory can explain why certain individuals are particularly drawn to the experience (Derval, 2024; Zhang, 2024). However, the extent to which arousal-seeking traits influence space tourism attitudes and the factors that may moderate these relationships remain underexplored.

Although previous studies have explored space tourism from technological, economic, and policy-related perspectives, limited attention has been directed toward the psychological motivations shaping consumer attitudes and intentions. In particular, the application of Optimal Arousal Theory to space tourism remains underexplored, leaving critical gaps in understanding how novelty seeking, sensation seeking, and adventure seeking influence perceptions and behavioral intentions. Additionally, external factors such as perceived risk and environmental concern may moderate the effects of these psychological drivers (Spector, 2020; Farkić and Gebbels, 2022). While sensation seekers may be drawn to the inherent risks of space travel, others may view these risks as deterrents (Pröbstl-Haider et al., 2016; Park and Stangl, 2020). Likewise, as sustainability becomes increasingly salient, concerns over the environmental impact of space tourism—such as its carbon footprint and atmospheric consequences—may negatively influence the intentions of environmentally conscious individuals (Ross and Jones, 2022; Khan, 2024). However, empirical investigations into these moderating effects within the context of space tourism remain limited. A recent study by Nguyen et al. (2025) examined how the trustworthiness, usefulness, and immersiveness of social media content influence space tourism intentions, highlighting the dominance of experiential appeal over factual accuracy. In contrast, the present study investigates a broader set of socio-psychological and behavioral factors—namely sensation seeking, novelty seeking, and adventure seeking—and examines the moderating role of perceived risk and environmental concern in shaping the space tourism intentions of luxury tourists. Understanding the interplay between these internal motivations and external concerns is critical for the sustainable development and commercialization of space tourism. Consequently, this study aims to:

• (1)

  Investigate how novelty seeking, sensation seeking, and adventure seeking influence attitudes toward space tourism through the lens of optimal arousal theory.

• (2)

  Examine how perceived risk moderates the relationship between arousal-seeking traits and attitudes toward space tourism.

• (3)

  Explore the moderating effect of environmental awareness on the relationship between space tourism attitudes and participation intentions.

By offering insights into tourist, this research contributes to both theoretical and practical advancements in space tourism. The findings will aid space tourism providers in refining their marketing strategies, identifying target consumer segments, and addressing potential deterrents such as safety concerns and sustainability issues. Moreover, this study will enrich the growing literature on space tourism by integrating psychological theory into the discourse, providing a more nuanced understanding of what drives consumer interest in this emerging luxury market. Ultimately, ensuring the responsible and sustainable growth of space tourism requires a deeper comprehension of consumer motivations, risk perceptions, and environmental considerations—an understanding that this research seeks to provide.

Space tourism is transitioning from a futuristic concept to a commercially viable industry (Mehran et al., 2023), driven by advancements in aerospace technology and private sector investments from companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Virgin Galactic (Chang, 2015). Unlike traditional tourism, space travel offers unprecedented experiences such as weightlessness, breath-taking planetary views, and the “Overview Effect” (Zhang, 2024). The advent of reusable rocket technology has lowered costs, making commercial space travel increasingly feasible and economically attractive (Metzger, 2023).

Beyond tourism, the sector fosters economic growth through investments, job creation, and technological innovation with applications in satellite deployment, space habitation, and interplanetary transportation. However, significant challenges persist, including underdeveloped legal frameworks, safety risks, and sustainability concerns (Jakhu and Pelton, 2017). Issues such as liability, passenger rights, and space traffic management necessitate new regulations (Mehran et al., 2023). Trustworthiness, usefulness, and immersiveness of social media content also influence space tourism intentions (Nguyen et al. (2025). Additionally, the environmental impact of frequent rocket launches—carbon emissions, ozone depletion, and space debris—raises sustainability debates, urging the industry to explore cleaner propulsion technologies (Zhang, 2024). Ethical concerns also emerge, as the high costs currently restrict access to the ultra-wealthy, prompting discussions on social equity and long-term accessibility (Metzger, 2016). Safety risks, including technical failures and health challenges in microgravity, further influence public acceptance (Cohen, 2022). Despite these barriers, the commercialization of space travel is expected to shape the future of tourism, redefine human exploration, and inspire scientific advancements (Zhang and Wang, 2022). However, empirical research on public perceptions, consumer motivations, and behavioral intentions remains limited, highlighting the need for interdisciplinary studies to ensure responsible and sustainable development (Mehran et al., 2023).

Optimal arousal theory posits that individuals seek activities that provide ideal levels of mental and sensory stimulation to enhance satisfaction and well-being. Space tourism, with its extreme novelty and intensity, aligns with this theory, particularly for individuals who seek high-arousal experiences (Bandhu et al., 2024; Holt, 2023). The thrill of weightlessness and extra-terrestrial exploration attracts novelty seekers, sensation seekers, and adventure seekers, who actively pursue stimulating and unique experiences (Kim et al., 2024a). Novelty seekers are driven by a desire for new and unique experiences, making space tourism the pinnacle of travel exploration (Zhang et al., 2021). Sensation seekers, drawn to high-risk and emotionally intense activities, find space tourism appealing due to its unpredictability and excitement (Glicksohn et al., 2018). Similarly, adventure seekers seek physically challenging and extraordinary experiences, making space travel an ideal pursuit (Dolinsky, 2022; Janowski et al., 2021) To maximize consumer satisfaction, space tourism providers must tailor experiences to different arousal thresholds. While some consumers thrive on intense stimulation, others may require a balance between novelty and comfort (Huang et al., 2021). Understanding these psychological variations is essential for predicting consumer behavior and designing compelling space tourism experiences (Kim et al., 2024b; Mehran et al., 2023).

Novelty seeking reflects an individual’s desire for new, unique, and unfamiliar experiences, making it a key driver of tourism behavior (Yuan and Hong, 2024). In space tourism, novelty seekers are particularly drawn to the unparalleled experience of leaving Earth, experiencing microgravity, and witnessing space first-hand (Frigotto and Palmi, 2024). The appeal lies in the sense of discovery, thrill, and sensory stimulation that space travel offers, reinforcing its attractiveness to those seeking experiences beyond routine (Wang et al., 2021a, b). Despite the growing interest in space tourism, limited research explores how novelty-seeking traits shape consumer attitudes toward this emerging industry (Małecka et al., 2022). Understanding this relationship is crucial for marketers and operators aiming to engage consumers driven by exploration and uniqueness.

Sensation seeking is the tendency to pursue intense, high-arousal experiences, often involving excitement and risk (Yıldırım and Cakıcı, 2020). In tourism, sensation seekers gravitate toward extreme and unconventional activities, making space tourism a highly attractive option (Slaney et al., 2024). The thrill of microgravity, the visual spectacle of Earth from space, and the exclusivity of the experience align with their need for novel and exhilarating stimulation (Frost and Frost, 2022). While sensation-seeking traits generally foster positive attitudes toward space tourism, certain deterrents—such as safety concerns, financial costs, and unmet expectations—may temper enthusiasm (Karl et al., 2020). However, empirical evidence consistently links sensation seeking to favorable perceptions of high-risk travel experiences (Gatti et al., 2023), making it a strong predictor of space tourism attitudes.

Adventure seekers are driven by a desire for thrilling, challenging, and high-risk experiences (Buckley, 2012). Space tourism, with its physical and psychological demands, represents the ultimate adventure, offering the opportunity to push personal boundaries and achieve a once-in-a-lifetime feat (Zhang and Wang, 2022). The exclusivity and sense of personal accomplishment associated with space travel enhance its appeal to those seeking transformative and boundary-pushing experiences (Schweinsberg and Fennell, 2023). However, factors such as cost, accessibility, and ethical concerns may influence the extent to which adventure seekers embrace space tourism (Cater, 2019). Unlike traditional adventure tourism, which involves direct engagement with nature, space travel is highly regulated and technologically mediated, potentially altering its perceived appeal (Mascarenhas et al., 2024). Despite these considerations, adventure-seeking individuals are generally predisposed to view space tourism positively.

Attitude reflects an individual’s evaluative response toward a concept or behavior, shaping their likelihood of engagement based on perceived consequences (Ogden et al., 2006). As a key determinant of behavioral intention, positive attitudes increase the probability of action (Petty and Krosnick, 2014). The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) asserts that intention is guided by attitude and subjective norms (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Conner, 2020). However, debates persist on whether attitude functions as an independent predictor or a mediating mechanism within behavioral models (Vamvaka et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021a, b). In space tourism, attitude formation is shaped by psychological traits and contextual factors, given the industry’s novelty, high costs, and perceived risks (Wang et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2024). Sensation seeking, novelty seeking, and adventure seeking drive individuals toward high-stimulation experiences (Olya and Han, 2023), fostering favorable attitudes toward space tourism. However, this relationship is rarely direct—attitude mediates the link between these traits and behavioral intention. While high sensation seekers may show initial interest, only those who form strongly favorable attitudes—balancing excitement with risk perception—are likely to commit to participation (Morwitz and Munz, 2021).

Grounded in established theoretical frameworks, the research model (as shown in Figure 1) identifies key factors influencing space tourism intentions by integrating both psychological and contextual determinants. Attitude formation toward space tourism is shaped by a combination of intrinsic motivations and external constraints, necessitating a comprehensive approach to understanding behavioral intention. This study examines novelty seeking, sensation seeking, and adventure seeking as independent variables, as these traits are widely recognized as primary psychological drivers of exploratory and high-risk behaviors (Olya and Han, 2023). Individuals high in sensation seeking are drawn to intense, thrilling, and extraordinary experiences, making space tourism—an extreme and unparalleled adventure—a particularly appealing endeavor. Similarly, novelty seeking reflects an inherent desire for new and unique experiences, aligning with space tourism’s positioning as an innovative and cutting-edge travel opportunity (Chang, 2017). Adventure seeking, which overlaps with both traits, captures the willingness to engage in physically and psychologically demanding activities, further reinforcing the attraction to space travel (Olya and Han, 2023). However, while these psychological traits create a predisposition for interest in space tourism, actual intention formation is subject to various contextual barriers and concerns. This study integrates perceived risk and environmental concern as moderating variables, recognizing their critical influence on space tourism attitude and intention. Perceived risk is a well-documented inhibitor in high-stakes tourism contexts, where concerns about safety, financial investment, and technological uncertainty can significantly dampen enthusiasm despite an individual’s thrill-seeking disposition (Wang et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2024). Likewise, environmental concern serves as a growing socio-psychological barrier, as prospective space tourists weigh the ecological impact of space travel against their desire for novel experiences. By considering these moderating influences, the research model captures the complex interplay between psychological predispositions and real-world constraints, offering a deeper understanding of how space tourism attitudes and intentions are shaped. This framework contributes to the evolving discourse on space tourism by integrating both individual-level psychological drivers and broader socio-contextual factors, providing a more holistic perspective on the mechanisms that encourage or deter participation.

Environmental consciousness, encompassing individuals' attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors toward ecological issues, plays a crucial role in shaping travel decisions, including participation in space tourism (Inkpen and Baily, 2020). As space tourism gains commercial traction, concerns over its environmental impact, particularly carbon emissions from rocket launches and fossil fuel dependency, have become increasingly significant (Miraux, 2022; Ross and Jones, 2022).While space tourism offers unparalleled experiences, its resource-intensive nature contradicts sustainable tourism trends focused on ecological responsibility (Idroes et al., 2024). Environmental consciousness a key determinant of sustainable travel behavior, influencing attitudes and intentions toward space tourism (Khan, 2024). The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) suggests that attitudes significantly shape behavioral intentions (Ajzen, 1991), but environmental awareness may reshape attitudes by drawing attention to space tourism’s ecological implications (Almulhim and Abubakar, 2021). As individuals become more environmentally conscious, they may reassess the desirability of space travel, leading to reduced engagement due to sustainability concerns (Kim et al., 2024). However, others may still pursue space tourism if they believe the industry is adopting sustainable innovations (Wu et al., 2024). This cognitive dissonance—balancing enthusiasm for space tourism with environmental responsibility—may either discourage participation or inspire advocacy for greener alternatives (Tiwari et al., 2023). Addressing environmental concerns will be critical for the long-term viability of space tourism (Miraux, 2022). Companies must recognize and mitigate the hesitations of environmentally aware consumers by integrating sustainable practices and transparent communication (Zaman et al., 2022). Despite growing research on sustainable travel choices, limited studies examine how environmental concerns moderate the relationship between attitudes and intentions in space tourism (Toivonen, 2022). Given the industry’s luxury nature and significant environmental footprint, understanding this moderating role is essential for shaping policies and marketing strategies.

Perceived risk is an individual’s subjective evaluation of potential dangers and uncertainties based on personal, contextual, and cultural factors (Yuan et al., 2021). In high-risk industries like space tourism, concerns over physical safety, financial loss, and the lack of precedent for human experiences in space shape consumer attitudes (Sachdeva, 2023; Nelson and Block, 2018). While some view these risks as barriers, others—especially novelty, sensation, and adventure seekers—may see them as part of the excitement and allure of space travel (Laing and Frost, 2019). For thrill-seekers, risk can enhance the perceived value of space tourism, making it more enticing (Wang et al., 2019). However, excessive perceived risk may deter participation by overshadowing the appeal of novel and extreme experiences (She et al., 2019). This suggests that perceived risk moderates the relationship between psychological traits and space tourism attitudes, either amplifying or inhibiting engagement based on individual risk tolerance (Park and Stangl, 2020). Despite research linking novelty, sensation, and adventure seeking to tourism behavior, limited studies explore perceived risk’s moderating role in space tourism attitudes (Chang, 2017; Wang et al., 2021a, b). Most studies focus on direct relationships without considering how risk perceptions influence attitudes toward space travel (Schweinsberg and Fennell, 2023). Addressing this gap is crucial for understanding consumer decision-making and for tailoring marketing strategies that either mitigate or leverage perceived risk to attract potential tourists.

The study employed a structured questionnaire to collect data on luxury tourists’ attitudes and intentions toward space tourism. The questionnaire consisted of two main sections: the first section captured demographic information, including age, gender, and occupation, while the second section measured seven key constructs of the study using validated and established scales from prior literature as shown in Table 1. Specifically, space tourism attitude was measured using five items adapted from Kiatkawsin et al. (2021), and space tourism intention was assessed through five items from Congden et al. (2024). Perceived risk and adventure seeking were each measured using four items adapted from Kim et al. (2023) and Launius (2000), respectively. Novelty seeking, sensation seeking, and environmental concern were each assessed with five items based on scales from Yuan and Hong (2024), Lepp and Gibson (2008), and Thiruchelvi (2024), respectively. All measurement items employed a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The decision to use a five-point scale was based on its cognitive ease and simplicity, particularly suitable for luxury tourists from culturally diverse backgrounds who often face time constraints. This choice is further supported by Sarmah et al. (2017) and Alkhozaim et al. (2025) who reported that five-point scales promote faster completion and more accurate responses in similar tourism contexts. To ensure content clarity and measurement reliability, the instrument underwent a two-phase validation process. Initially, a panel of tourism behavior experts reviewed the questionnaire for construct alignment and content accuracy, leading to refinements in item wording. Subsequently, a pretest was conducted with 20 luxury tourists to assess face validity, item clarity, and response comprehension. The results showed Cronbach’s alpha values exceeding 0.70 for all constructs, indicating satisfactory internal consistency. Only minor adjustments were made before final deployment. The survey was originally developed in English, the dominant language in international tourism and luxury service environments. To ensure inclusivity and full comprehension among Arabic-speaking respondents, on-site research assistants provided translation support in Arabic during data collection.

This study adopted a cross-sectional research design to investigate the socio-psychological and behavioral determinants influencing space tourism intention (STI) among luxury tourists. Given the lack of a formal sampling frame for this exclusive segment, a non-probability purposive sampling technique was employed, consistent with methodological recommendations for studying elite populations (Lehdonvirta et al., 2021). Data collection took place on-site at ten of the most prominent and internationally recognized 5-star and 7-star hotels in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, chosen for their reputation, global clientele, and high concentration of affluent guests. These hotels included: The Ritz-Carlton Riyadh, Four Seasons Hotel Riyadh at Kingdom Centre, Fairmont Riyadh, Hyatt Regency Riyadh Olaya, Hilton Riyadh Hotel and Residences, JW Marriott Hotel Riyadh, Voco Riyadh – an IHG Hotel, Narcissus Hotel and Spa Riyadh, Fraser Suites Riyadh, and Al Faisaliah Hotel (a Mandarin Oriental Hotel).

Structured self-administered questionnaires were distributed to eligible respondents, with the survey available in English and supported by Arabic-speaking research assistants to ensure accessibility for non-English speakers. To enhance sample precision and ensure alignment with the luxury tourist profile, three filter questions were used during participant screening: (1) “How frequently do you stay at 5-star or 7-star hotels?” with response options: 1–2 times, 3–5 times, and more than 5 times; (2) “What is your monthly income?” with response options: Less than 30,000 SR and More than 30,000 SR; and (3) “Do you currently own at least one luxury car (e.g. Mercedes, BMW, Audi, Tesla, Lexus, or equivalent)?” with response options: Yes or No. Only participants who reported staying in 5- or 7-star hotels more than five times, earning over 30,000 Saudi Riyals per month, and owning at least one luxury vehicle were included in the final sample. Of the 625 tourists approached, 511 met all inclusion criteria and successfully completed the survey, while 114 were excluded for not satisfying one or more screening conditions.

This rigorous filtering ensured the sample comprised individuals with both the financial capacity and experiential orientation aligned with luxury consumption and high-involvement, novelty-seeking behaviors such as space tourism. The final sample included a balanced mix of national (Saudi) and international tourists, reflecting the cosmopolitan nature of Riyadh’s luxury hospitality sector. This diversity facilitated the exploration of cross-cultural perspectives on emerging tourism phenomena like space travel.

Descriptive analysis was conducted using SPSS to summarize respondent characteristics and key study variables. Data analysis proceeded with a two-step Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) approach using SmartPLS, suitable for prediction-oriented research, theory development, and handling complex models with non-normal data in moderate sample sizes (Hair et al., 2010). In the first step, the measurement model was assessed to establish the reliability and validity of the constructs, ensuring that observed items accurately reflected their latent variables. In the second step, the structural model was evaluated to test the study’s hypotheses. PLS-SEM was selected for its ability to model both mediating and moderating effects and for its higher statistical power compared to factor-based SEM, as it utilizes total variance to form composite constructs, thereby enhancing predictive accuracy and model robustness (Hair et al., 2017, 2019).

Table 2 presents the demographic characteristics of the 511 respondents. The majority of participants were male (n = 372, 72.79%), with a smaller proportion of female participants (n = 139, 27.21%). Age was categorized into four groups: 20–30 years (n = 56, 10.95%), 31–40 years (n = 125, 24.46%), 41–50 years (n = 206, 40.31%), and 51 years or older (n = 124, 24.46%). Regarding occupation, the largest group of respondents (n = 4,283, 83.75%) identified their occupation as business-related, while the remaining respondents (n = 83, 16.24%) reported occupations not related to business.

Common method bias (CMB) was assessed using Harman’s single-factor test (Howard et al., 2024). The first unrotated factor accounted for 21.45% of the variance. While this result suggests that CMB may not be a dominant threat to the validity of the findings, it is important to acknowledge that Harman’s test is not conclusive, and CMB could still be present (Podsakoff et al., 2024). Therefore, this result should be interpreted cautiously. Furthermore, the potential for multicollinearity, which can exacerbate the effects of CMB, was examined using Variance Inflation Factors (VIFs). All VIF values were below 5 (see Table 3), indicating no significant multicollinearity among the variables.

This phase of PLS-SEM evaluates the measurement model’s fit, reliability, and validity to ensure its robustness. The model fit indices, namely SRMR (0.0615) and NFI (0.922), exceed the recommended thresholds, confirming an acceptable model fit (Hair et al., 2019). To assess convergent validity, the study applied factor loadings, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). Internal consistency was measured using Cronbach’s alpha, with values exceeding the 0.7 threshold, indicating good reliability (Hair, 2010). However, certain items—NS1, SS1, SS2, PR2, PR4, and EC3—did not meet the required threshold and were therefore excluded from the model one at a time. Furthermore, the composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) values exceeded 0.70, demonstrating satisfactory internal consistency across all seven reflective latent variables, as presented in Table 3. Discriminant validity was assessed using the Fornell-Larcker criterion (Fornell and Larcker, 1981), as shown in Table 4. According to this criterion, discriminant validity is established when the square root of AVE for each construct is greater than its correlations with other constructs. The external loadings (bold) of each latent variable were higher than their cross-loadings, further confirming discriminant validity.

The hypothesis testing results revealed several significant relationships among the study variables (as shown in Table 5). The findings indicate that novelty seeking had a non-significant relationship with space tourism attitude (β = −0.006, t = 0.114, p = 0.909), suggesting that individuals driven by novelty do not necessarily develop a positive attitude toward space tourism. However, novelty seeking was positively and significantly associated with space tourism intention (β = 0.136, t = 3.155, p = 0.002), supporting the hypothesis that individuals who seek novelty are more likely to express an intention to participate in space tourism. Similarly, sensation seeking exhibited a significant positive relationship with space tourism attitude (β = 0.154, t = 4.743, p = 0.000), indicating that those with a higher propensity for sensation-seeking are more likely to hold favorable attitudes toward space tourism. Conversely, the relationship between sensation seeking and space tourism intention was found to be significantly negative (β = −0.214, t = 4.046, p = 0.000), suggesting that while sensation seekers may have a positive attitude, this does not necessarily translate into an intention to engage in space tourism.

Furthermore, adventure seeking was not significantly associated with space tourism attitude (β = −0.022, t = 0.464, p = 0.643), indicating that the desire for adventure alone does not shape individuals' attitudes toward space tourism. However, adventure seeking was significantly and negatively associated with space tourism intention (β = −0.354, t = 8.908, p = 0.000), suggesting that individuals with a stronger inclination toward adventure may be less inclined to pursue space tourism. Lastly, space tourism attitude was found to have a positive and significant effect on space tourism intention (β = 0.258, t = 3.856, p = 0.000), confirming that individuals with a favorable attitude toward space tourism are more likely to express an intention to participate. Overall, these findings provide strong empirical support for the theoretical framework, highlighting the complex interplay between psychological traits and the decision-making process regarding space tourism.

Table 6 presents the results of the moderating effects of environmental consciousness on the relationships between novelty seeking, sensation seeking, and adventure seeking with space tourism attitude. The findings reveal that environmental consciousness does not significantly moderate the relationship between novelty seeking and space tourism attitude (β = 0.065, t = 1.576, p = 0.115), leading to the rejection of H8a. Similarly, its moderating effect on the relationship between sensation seeking and space tourism attitude is also non-significant (β = 0.124, t = 1.880, p = 0.060), resulting in the rejection of H8b. However, environmental consciousness exhibits a significant negative moderating effect on the relationship between adventure seeking and space tourism attitude (β = 0.179, t = 3.175, p = 0.002), thereby supporting H8c.

In addition, perceived risk is found to negatively moderate the relationship between space tourism attitude and space tourism intention (β = −0.155, t = 5.936, p = 0.000), confirming H9a. These results highlight the significant moderating roles of perceived risk and environmental consciousness in shaping individuals’ attitudes toward space tourism. Further analysis of the moderating effect of environmental consciousness on the relationship between adventure seeking and space tourism attitude reveals notable differences based on varying levels of environmental awareness. When environmental consciousness is low (Mean -1SD), the influence of adventure seeking on space tourism attitude is strong and significant (β = 0.353, p = 0.000), suggesting that individuals with minimal environmental concerns are more likely to develop a positive attitude toward space tourism based on their adventure-seeking tendencies. At a moderate level of environmental consciousness (Mean), this effect weakens but remains significant (β = 0.159, p = 0.000), indicating that individuals with an average level of environmental awareness still exhibit a connection between adventure seeking and space tourism attitude, albeit to a lesser extent. However, when environmental consciousness is high (Mean +1SD), the effect of adventure seeking on space tourism attitude diminishes substantially (β = 0.013, p = 0.000), demonstrating that individuals with strong environmental concerns are less likely to develop a favorable attitude toward space tourism, even if they have a strong inclination toward adventure. These findings underscore the complex interplay between psychological traits and environmental concerns in shaping attitudes toward space tourism.

Similarly, in examining the relationship between space tourism attitude (STA) and space tourism intention (STI), the findings indicate that at low levels of perceived risk (PR) (Mean -1SD), STA has a strong and significant impact on STI (β = 0.453, p = 0.000). This suggests that among luxury tourists with low perceived risk, a positive attitude toward space tourism directly translates into a higher intention to participate. At a moderate level of perceived risk (Mean), the effect of STA on STI remains significant but weakens (β = 0.216, p = 0.000), indicating that as perceived risk increases, the influence of attitude on intention diminishes. However, when perceived risk is high (Mean +1SD), the effect of STA on STI weakens substantially (β = 0.113, p = 0.000), suggesting that individuals with strong perceived risk exhibit significantly lower intentions to engage in space tourism, regardless of their attitude toward it.

To better understand the nature of these moderating effects, a slope analysis was conducted. As shown in Figure 2, the interaction effect between adventure seeking (AS) and space tourism attitude (STA) varies based on environmental consciousness (EC). The steeper slope at low EC levels suggests that when environmental consciousness is minimal, the impact of adventure seeking on space tourism attitude is stronger. However, at higher levels of EC, the slope becomes negatively steeper, indicating that individuals with strong environmental concerns exhibit a weaker relationship between adventure seeking and space tourism attitude.

Similarly, Figure 3 illustrates the moderating effect of perceived risk on the relationship between STA and STI. The slope is much steeper for low perceived risk, indicating that when perceived risk is minimal, a positive attitude toward space tourism has a stronger impact on intention. However, as perceived risk increases, the slope gradually flattens, suggesting that higher perceived risk weakens the influence of attitude on intention. In conclusion, while a positive attitude toward space tourism remains a key predictor of intention, higher perceived risk significantly dampens this relationship, ultimately reducing individuals' willingness to engage in space tourism.

Table 7 presents the mediation effects of attitude (STA) as an intervening variable, analyzed using Preacher and Hayes’ (2008) approach. This analysis examines the indirect effects of novelty seeking (NS), sensation seeking (SS), and adventure seeking (AS) on space tourism intention (STI) through space tourism attitude (STA). The results indicate that the indirect effect of NS on STI via STA was not significant (β = −0.001, t = 0.110, p = 0.912), leading to the rejection of H7a. In contrast, the mediation analysis revealed a significant indirect effect of SS on STI through STA (β = 0.040, t = 2.630, p = 0.009), supporting H7b. Following Hair et al. (2019) recommendation, the variance accounted for (VAF) was calculated to assess the proportion of the total effect mediated by STA. The VAF value of −0.229 suggests that 22.9% of the effect of SS on STI is partially and negatively mediated through STA. Since the VAF is greater than 20% but less than 80%, this indicates partial mediation, meaning that while STA plays a role in explaining the relationship, a direct effect of SS on STI also exists. Additionally, the indirect effect of AS on STI via STA was not significant (β = −0.006, t = 0.436, p = 0.663), leading to the rejection of H7c. These findings suggest that while sensation seeking partially influences space tourism intention through attitude, novelty seeking and adventure seeking do not exhibit significant indirect effects (see Figure 4).

Space tourism, as an emerging and high-risk industry, has gained increasing public interest due to advancements in technology that enhance accessibility and evolving consumer motivations (Mehran et al., 2023). This study examines key motivational factors—novelty seeking, sensation seeking, and adventure seeking—through the lens of Optimal Arousal Theory to understand their influence on attitudes and intentions toward space tourism. Additionally, the moderating roles of environmental concern and perceived risk are assessed to determine how they shape or constrain these motivations. Given that Optimal Arousal Theory is widely applied in high-stimulation contexts, its relevance to space tourism is particularly significant (Gustafsson, 2023). This theory suggests that individuals are naturally inclined toward novel, uncertain, and intense experiences (Güzel et al., 2020), aligning with the motivations driving space tourism participation. The relationship between attitude and space tourism intention reinforces the critical role of attitude in shaping the behavioral design of space tourism. This finding is consistent with the Theory of Planned Behavior, which posits that attitudes strongly influence individual choices and actions (Ajzen, 1991).

As a groundbreaking form of travel, individuals seeking novelty do not necessarily develop a favorable attitude toward space tourism. This may be because novelty seekers are attracted to other forms of novelty rather than space tourism in particular (Blomstervik and Olsen, 2022). The findings of this study align with previous research, confirming that individuals motivated by novelty are not likely to hold positive attitudes toward space tourism (Kim et al., 2023a, b). Despite their neutral stance, novelty seekers still show some inclination toward space tourism. This suggests that their motivation may stem from factors beyond attitude, such as curiosity, excitement, or social influence (Olya and Han, 2020). The opportunity to explore new frontiers remains a key driver for those prioritizing unique and transformative experiences (Khasawneh et al., 2024).

Similarly, sensation seekers—individuals who crave intense and exhilarating experiences (Schumpe et al., 2020)—exhibit a strong positive relationship with attitudes toward space tourism. These findings align with previous research indicating that sensation seekers are particularly receptive to high-risk, high-reward activities (Edmiston et al., 2020), often perceiving the dangers of space travel as an enhancement rather than a deterrent (Olya and Han, 2020). This supports Goel et al. (2024), assertion that high-arousal experiences satisfy sensation seekers' psychological need for excitement. However, the negative correlation between sensation seeking and space tourism intention suggests that despite their positive attitude, high-sensation seekers may encounter barriers such as cost, risk, or accessibility, preventing them from actively pursuing space tourism (Yousaf et al., 2023).

Adventure seekers, motivated by a desire to escape routine and engage in thrilling leisure activities (Fraiz et al., 2020), perceive space tourism as an attractive, challenging, and novel experience (Kiper et al., 2023). However, this study confirms that adventure seekers may be less willing to engage in space tourism, as they often prefer more physically demanding or terrestrial activities (Rosa et al., 2022). These findings suggest that while adventurous individuals may find space travel fascinating, they may not necessarily see it as a feasible or desirable option.

Individuals with high or low environmental consciousness do not differ significantly in how their novelty-seeking and sensation-seeking tendencies influence their attitudes toward space tourism. Those engaged in novelty-seeking and sensation-seeking behaviors prioritize excitement, making their attitudes toward space tourism less susceptible to environmental concerns (Wang et al., 2018). However, the negative moderating effect of environmental consciousness suggests that as individuals' environmental awareness increases, the influence of adventure-seeking on their attitude toward space tourism diminishes. This aligns with previous research showing that environmentally conscious individuals may perceive space tourism as unsustainable, reducing their likelihood of adopting a positive attitude toward it despite their adventurous nature (Baciu, 2022).

The findings also indicate that while a positive attitude toward space tourism leads to greater interest in participation, this effect weakens as perceived risk increases. At low levels of perceived risk (PR), the impact of space tourism attitude (STA) on space tourism intention (STI) is strong, suggesting that high-end tourists with lower risk concerns are more likely to consider space tourism (Kim et al., 2023a, b). However, at high levels of PR, the effect of STA on STI diminishes, indicating that individuals with heightened risk perceptions require additional assurances before committing to space tourism (She et al., 2019). This highlights the importance of addressing perceived risks, such as safety concerns and financial uncertainty, to enhance consumer confidence.

The mediation analysis confirms that attitude toward space tourism partially mediates the relationship between novelty seeking, sensation seeking, adventure seeking, and space tourism intention. The findings suggest a complex interaction between these variables, revealing different mediation effects. While novelty-seeking tendencies may influence general interest in space tourism, attitude does not serve as a significant mediating pathway for converting novelty-seeking traits into actual space tourism intentions. Novelty-seeking individuals may be intrigued by space tourism conceptually but may not develop strong enough commitment to follow through (Chang, 2017). Similarly, the desire for adventure does not necessarily translate into an interest in space tourism, suggesting that other mechanisms may be at play. Adventure seekers may prefer physically intense or high-risk experiences, which may not align with the current reality of space tourism (Wang et al., 2021a, b). However, attitude significantly mediates the relationship between sensation-seeking behavior and space tourism intention, and there is also a direct effect of sensation seeking on intention. This aligns with previous research indicating that sensation seekers are drawn to extreme and novel experiences, reinforcing that their interest in space tourism is driven not only by attitude but also by their inherent thrill-seeking tendencies (Raggiotto and Scarpi, 2021; Jo, 2023).

These findings align with Optimal Arousal Theory, suggesting that the pursuit of thrilling experiences indirectly leads to intention formation through the development of a stronger positive attitude (Ponte et al., 2021; Blomstervik and Olsen, 2022). Additionally, the results confirm that attitude formation plays a central role in translating the psychological motivations of luxury tourists into behavioral intentions. Addressing perceived risks and enhancing positive perceptions of space tourism can further strengthen these relationships, ultimately fostering greater interest and participation in this emerging sector.

The study makes a significant theoretical contribution by integrating Optimal Arousal Theory with consumer motivations—novelty seeking, sensation seeking, and adventure seeking—to explain attitudes and intentions toward space tourism, a high-risk and novel travel domain. By demonstrating how these psychological drivers shape consumer behavior, the study enhances our understanding of how individuals engage with high-stimulation experiences. The findings underscore the central role of arousal-seeking tendencies in driving participation in extreme and transformative travel, further establishing Optimal Arousal Theory as a relevant framework for understanding space tourism motivation. Furthermore, the study highlights the interaction between personal characteristics (motivations) and external variables (perceived risk and environmental concern), offering a more comprehensive behavioral model for space tourism. The empirical evidence suggests that while space tourism strongly appeals to individuals seeking novelty, excitement, and adventure, concerns about risk and environmental impact can act as psychological constraints, influencing their ultimate participation decisions. This nuanced perspective bridges gaps in existing research by integrating both push factors (intrinsic motivations) and pull factors (external constraints) into space tourism decision-making, providing a more holistic understanding of consumer behavior in this emerging sector.

This study offers valuable insights for space tourism operators, policymakers, and marketers aiming to attract early adopters and sustain long-term market growth. Recognizing the strong motivational drivers of novelty, sensation, and adventure seeking, space tourism companies can refine their marketing strategies to emphasize the unique, transformative, and highly stimulating aspects of space travel. By framing space tourism as an exclusive, life-changing experience, companies can craft compelling narratives that appeal to thrill-seekers, pioneers, and high-risk travelers eager to explore beyond Earth’s boundaries. Given the inherent risks associated with space travel, one of the most critical areas for space tourism operators is risk mitigation and consumer reassurance. Implementing comprehensive safety measures not only minimizes risks but also enhances traveler confidence, particularly among those with moderate to high-risk awareness. A key strategy in this regard is the development of robust travel insurance packages that provide substantial coverage for accidental damages, health risks, and life-threatening situations. Collaborating with leading insurance providers to introduce customized plans can ensure that passengers and their families are financially protected, increasing consumer confidence and making space travel more accessible. Additionally, by positioning insured space voyages as an exclusive, prestigious offering, companies can further enhance their market appeal.

While risk aversion may deter some potential travelers, specific consumer segments—particularly high novelty and adventure seekers—are drawn to the challenge and excitement associated with space travel. Operators can capitalize on this by enhancing the adventure elements of space tourism experiences, framing the journey as the ultimate test of courage and endurance. Offering differentiated experiences, such as high-risk, extreme space missions alongside standardized, safer tourism packages, can cater to both risk-averse travelers and high-adrenaline consumers. Marketing campaigns should emphasize the unparalleled thrill, prestige, and personal accomplishment of being among the first civilians to venture into space, appealing to aspirational and status-driven motivations. From a policy perspective, a balanced regulatory approach is needed to ensure safety, transparency, and ethical marketing practices while fostering the growth of the space tourism industry. Policymakers should mandate truthful advertising that includes clear disclosure of risks, environmental implications, and safety protocols to ensure informed consumer decision-making. Governments can also facilitate the establishment of industry standards for insurance coverage, emergency response procedures, and sustainable space tourism initiatives to mitigate long-term environmental and regulatory concerns. To maximize market penetration, space tourism companies should focus on engaging, personalized experiences that gradually convert curiosity into commitment. VR simulations, astronaut training experiences, and immersive marketing campaigns can bridge the psychological gap between initial interest and actual bookings, providing prospective travelers with a taste of the excitement before making a final decision. Additionally, exclusive loyalty programs and tiered space travel packages—ranging from suborbital flights to extended missions—can increase accessibility and desirability across different consumer segments. Ultimately, space tourism providers that successfully integrate safety assurances, high-risk adventure appeal, and ethical transparency will be best positioned to capture the emerging demand for commercial space travel. By tailoring experiences to both risk-tolerant adventurers and those seeking once-in-a-lifetime thrills, the industry can foster a sustainable, high-impact market that drives the future of luxury and extreme tourism beyond Earth.

This study provides valuable insights into the psychological motivations shaping attitudes and intentions toward space tourism; however, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the sample may not fully represent broader populations, potentially limiting the generalizability of the findings. Future studies could incorporate more diverse samples across different cultural, economic, and geographic contexts to enhance external validity. Second, while this study focuses on psychological motivations such as novelty seeking, sensation seeking, and adventure seeking, it does not account for socio-demographic factors—such as income level, education, and prior travel experience—that may also influence attitudes toward space tourism. Expanding research to include these variables could provide a more comprehensive understanding of consumer behavior in this emerging market. Third, the cross-sectional research design limits the ability to infer causality between motivations, attitudes, and intentions. Longitudinal studies could offer deeper insights into how attitudes toward space tourism evolve over time, particularly as technological advancements, safety measures, and public perceptions shift. Additionally, future research should explore other moderating variables, such as technological acceptance, ethical concerns, and sustainability perceptions, as these factors may significantly shape consumer attitudes and intentions in this rapidly evolving industry.