This study examines how three dimensions of e-service quality e-Accessibility, e-Support Services and e-Information Quality influence foreign tourists' e-satisfaction and e-loyalty when using Indonesia's immigration e-services.
A total of 387 valid responses were collected using purposive sampling. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was applied to test both direct and mediating relationships.
The findings show that e-Accessibility has a positive direct effect on e-loyalty but no significant effect on e-satisfaction. In contrast, e-Support Services (β = 0.60, p < 0.001) and e-Information Quality (β = 0.27, p < 0.001) significantly improve e-satisfaction. E-satisfaction also positively influences e-loyalty (β = 0.43, p < 0.001) and mediates the effects of e-Support Services and e-Information Quality on e-loyalty.
First, the research was conducted only in Central Java, and most respondents were recruited at major tourist destinations such as Borobudur, Prambanan and Malioboro. As a result, the findings may not fully represent all foreign tourists using Indonesia's immigration e-services in other regions. Second, the study used a cross-sectional design, which captures perceptions at one point in time and cannot fully explain how satisfaction or loyalty may change throughout the immigration process (Lin et al., 2005). Third, all data were self-reported and may be influenced by individual expectations, cultural backgrounds or personal experiences with digital systems (Salinas-Perez et al., 2024). Finally, the study focused only on three dimensions of e-service quality; other potentially important factors such as e-trust, website security or perceived risk were not included.
Improving support services and information quality can help reduce processing errors, prevent misunderstandings and enhance compliance with immigration requirements. When digital systems are easier to understand and more responsive, foreign tourists are more likely to complete procedures correctly, which benefits both the users and immigration authorities.
This can support Indonesia's broader goals of promoting tourism, improving international mobility and strengthening the country's digital public service reputation.
The results highlight the fact that improving support responsiveness and information accuracy is more critical for enhancing satisfaction than accessibility alone. The study provides practical insights for digital service designers and immigration administrators seeking to strengthen foreign tourists' loyalty to Indonesia's immigration e-services.
Introduction
Amid an ever more digital economy, the quality of electronic services or e-services provided by government institutions is very important, especially for immigration services which are sensitive and have a global audience (Salinas-Perez et al., 2024; Cherfane et al., 2024). The Republic of Indonesia, recognized for its robust economic growth and cultural wealth, attracts foreigners for business, tourism and residency (Hermawan & Rahayu, 2024). Consequently, the nation's immigration services are a critical touchpoint for these international visitors and residents. In the era of global digitalization, assessing the quality of electronic services (e-services) within public sectors and interacting with international clientele is crucial, particularly in sectors such as immigration (Chan, Chiu, & Ho, 2022). This research delves into the influence of e-service quality on foreigner e-loyalty, focusing on the mediation effect of e-satisfaction within Indonesia's immigration framework. The study is contextualized around the unique challenges and opportunities presented by Indonesia's Central Java, a region known for its significant tourist attractions. The impetus for this research stems from governments' increasing dependence on digital platforms to facilitate efficient and effective interactions with international tourists. The quality of these digital interactions can substantially influence user perceptions and operational efficacy, impacting broader aspects such as national reputation and the efficiency of immigration processes (LeBrón et al., 2024; Dar, 2022). With its strategic position and appeal as a tourist destination, Indonesia offers a pertinent case study for examining these dynamics (Junaidi et al., 2024).
Employing Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), the Immigration Office perspectives on the international tourists' data from Central Java Indonesia are explored. The goal is to disentangle the complex relationships between multiple dimensions of e-service quality, e-Accessibility, e-Support Services, e-Information Quality and their effects on user satisfaction and loyalty. This approach allows these dimensions of the study to be assessed rigorously and enables an understanding of the mechanisms through which service quality results in user loyalty (Aji et al., 2024; Alnaim, Sobaih, & Elshaer, 2022). Researching these relationships offers a practical perspective, as a contribution to public administration scientific research which may be applied in practice. The understanding provided is to enable more efficient service delivery to enhance the experience of international clients and improve strategy planning, anticipating the changes in demand for services online. There is substantial literature and debate around e-service in public sector service quality (Aji et al., 2024; Askari et al., 2024; Chan et al., 2022). It provides useful insights for policymakers and service management on improving digital services for foreigners traveling to Indonesia, to achieve better satisfaction and maintain their loyalty.
Research questions
These questions are designed to dissect the direct effects of each e-service quality dimension on e-satisfaction, the mediating role of e-satisfaction in transforming service quality into e-loyalty and the direct relationship between service quality dimensions and e-loyalty. Here are the proposed research questions:
What is the impact of e-Accessibility on the satisfaction levels of foreigners using Indonesia's immigration services?
How do e-Support Services influence the e-Satisfaction of foreigners interacting with Indonesian immigration e-services?
How does e-information Quality affect the e-satisfaction of foreigners with the e-services provided by Indonesian immigration?
Does Foreigner E-Satisfaction mediate the relationship between e-Accessibility and Foreigner E-Loyalty within Indonesian immigration services?
Does Foreigner E-Satisfaction mediate the relationship between e-Support Services, e-Information Quality and Foreigner E-Loyalty?
What is the direct impact of e-Accessibility, e-Support Services and e-Information Quality on Foreigner E-Loyalty, independent of E-Satisfaction?
Research objectives
The research objectives for a study on the impact of e-service quality on foreigner e-loyalty with the mediation of e-satisfaction, particularly within the context of Indonesia's immigration services, would aim to both explore and quantify the relationships depicted in the conceptual framework you've provided. Here are the research objectives that align with that framework.
To assess the influence of e-accessibility on the satisfaction of foreigners utilizing e-services in Indonesia's immigration sector.
To examine the effect of e-Support Services on the e-Satisfaction levels of foreigners using Indonesia's immigration e-services.
To evaluate how e-information Quality impacts the e-satisfaction of foreigners with the Indonesian immigration e-services.
To analyze the mediating role of Foreigner E-Satisfaction in the relationship between e-Accessibility and Foreigner E-Loyalty.
To determine the mediating effect of Foreigner E-Satisfaction on the link between e-Support Services and Foreigner E-Loyalty.
To investigate the mediation effect of Foreigner E-Satisfaction on the association between e-Information Quality and Foreigner E-Loyalty.
To explore the direct effects of e-Accessibility, e-Support Services and e-Information Quality on Foreigner E-Loyalty beyond the mediating influence of E-Satisfaction.
These objectives focus on understanding the direct relationships between different facets of e-service quality and e-satisfaction and the indirect effects on e-loyalty through the lens of e-satisfaction. Achieving these objectives will contribute to a deeper understanding of how e-service quality dimensions influence customer loyalty in the public sector, providing actionable insights for enhancing the immigration services experience for foreigners in Indonesia.
Literature review
Numerous researchers have investigated the relationships between e-service quality, e-satisfaction and e-loyalty across diverse sectors such as e-commerce, banking, transportation and public administration. However, despite the substantial scholarly attention, the theoretical and empirical findings remain inconsistent and frequently contradictory. These inconsistencies arise largely from contextual differences, variations in measurement scales and divergent expectations across service environments. Such inconsistencies highlight the need for a more integrated and nuanced understanding of how e-service quality operates within public-sector digital services, particularly in immigration systems, where service quality has implications not only for user satisfaction but also for national image and institutional trust.
E-service quality itself is a multidimensional construct whose influence on satisfaction is far from uniform. While some studies such as Yoo and Donthu (2001) have demonstrated that ease of access and user-friendly design significantly improve e-satisfaction, other scholars report the opposite. For example, Aji et al. (2024) found that e-accessibility alone does not significantly influence satisfaction, suggesting that accessibility may function as a baseline expectation rather than a driver of satisfaction. The literature on support services is equally mixed. Although classical studies like Anderson and Srinivasan (2003) propose that responsiveness enhances satisfaction, other findings indicate that support services may contribute minimally unless complemented by other dimensions of service quality (Lin et al., 2005). Information quality has also produced inconsistent results: while high-quality information enhances satisfaction (Van Riel et al., 2004), several researchers argue that information alone is insufficient without supportive interaction.
The mediating role of e-satisfaction in the relationship between e-service quality and e-loyalty is widely acknowledged, yet empirical evidence remains divided. Some studies confirm strong mediation effects (Lin et al., 2005), while others argue that certain dimensions of service quality such as accessibility or information quality may directly influence loyalty without requiring satisfaction as a mediator (Alnaim et al., 2022). Furthermore, emerging literature highlights the growing relevance of e-trust, which adds an additional layer of complexity. Although e-trust is frequently found to influence both satisfaction and loyalty (Saoula et al., 2023), its effects vary significantly across cultures and digital contexts (Soleimani, 2022). These inconsistencies reflect the need for context-specific investigations, especially in high-stakes government services where trust, accuracy and compliance are critical.
Several factors explain the mixed findings in the literature. E-service quality functions differently across industries; what enhances satisfaction in private-sector digital services does not necessarily translate into public digital service environments (Chan et al., 2022). Measurement bias is also a persistent challenge, as studies vary widely in their operationalization of constructs such as accessibility, support responsiveness and satisfaction. Additionally, cultural and demographic differences may lead users to prioritize different service attributes, resulting in divergent satisfaction and loyalty outcomes (Salinas-Perez et al., 2024). These variations highlight the need for targeted analysis within specific service domains, rather than assuming universal effects.
In the public administration field, several digital service frameworks offer additional perspectives for understanding how users evaluate government e-services (Aji et al., 2024). The Digital Government Maturity Model (DGMM) emphasizes accessibility, interoperability and responsiveness as core dimensions of public-sector digital service performance. Similarly, the Public Value Framework proposes that citizens assess digital public services not only in terms of efficiency but also trust, transparency and perceived fairness. The Technology Service Integration Model for Government (TSI-Gov) further argues that user satisfaction in public digital services depends on how well technology is integrated with bureaucratic processes, including clarity of information, response timeliness and multilingual support (Saoula et al., 2023). These frameworks collectively reveal that quality expectations in public e-services differ from commercial platforms because users interact with mandatory, regulation-driven systems rather than voluntary market-based services. Integrating these insights helps contextualize why certain e-service quality dimensions such as support responsiveness and information accuracy are especially critical in immigration settings where compliance, clarity and reliability directly influence user satisfaction and loyalty (Aji et al., 2024).
Taken together, these gaps demonstrate that existing theories provide only partial explanations for how e-service quality affects satisfaction and loyalty in public digital services particularly in immigration contexts serving diverse international users. To address these shortcomings, this study offers a context-specific assessment of e-service quality dimensions in Indonesia's immigration services. By focusing explicitly on foreign tourists and examining both direct and mediated effects, the research contributes to a more precise understanding of how e-service quality shapes satisfaction and loyalty in the public sector. This adds theoretical clarity and practical relevance to a domain where reliable digital service delivery is crucial for national competitiveness and visitor experience.
Although many studies have examined e-service quality, the findings are often mixed and do not always agree with each other. Some researchers focus on the technical side of e-services, while others look at the user experience, which leads to different results (Yoo & Donthu, 2001). For example, in private digital services, accessibility is usually seen as a key factor that improves satisfaction (Yoo & Donthu, 2001). However, recent studies in public services show that accessibility may have little effect on satisfaction because users see it as a basic requirement rather than something that adds value (Aji et al., 2024). The same happens with information quality. Some studies find that clear and accurate information improves satisfaction (Van Riel et al., 2004), while others show that information alone is not enough without helpful support from the system or service provider (Lin et al., 2005). The role of satisfaction as a mediator is also inconsistent. Some studies show strong mediation (Anderson & Srinivasan, 2003; Lin et al., 2005), but others find that some service dimensions can directly influence loyalty without going through satisfaction (Alnaim et al., 2022; Askari et al., 2024). These mixed results suggest that e-service quality works differently in government digital services compared to private platforms, especially in immigration services where users need clear instructions, reliable processes and trustworthy information (Chan et al., 2022). Therefore, a context-specific study is needed to understand how e-service quality affects foreign users' satisfaction and loyalty in immigration systems.
Several well-established technology adoption theories help explain why users choose to engage with digital public services such as immigration e-systems. The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) emphasize that user behavior is shaped by attitudes, social influence and perceived control. These models suggest that satisfaction and trust can indirectly influence continued system use (Musa, Fatmawati, Nuryakin, & Saleh, 2024a, Musa, Fatmawati, Nuryakin, & Suyanto, 2024b, Musa, Fatmawati, Nuryakin, & Suyanto, 2024c). The Diffusion of Innovations theory highlights the importance of simplicity, usefulness and system compatibility, which align with our e-service quality dimensions. Social Cognitive Theory also supports the idea that users rely on guidance, feedback and supportive environments when interacting with unfamiliar digital systems. More recent frameworks such as the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) underline the importance of perceived usefulness, ease of use, system support and facilitating conditions. Together, these theories provide a strong foundation for understanding why support services and information quality contribute more to satisfaction and loyalty compared to accessibility in immigration e-services (Musa et al., 2024a, b, c). Based on this theoretical foundation, the conceptual framework of this study is illustrated Figure 1, which presents the relationships between e-accessibility, e-support services, information quality, foreigner e-satisfaction and foreigner e-loyalty.
From this theoretical foundation, several hypotheses can be drawn:
E-Accessibility has a positive effect on Foreigner E-Satisfaction.
E-Support Services have a positive effect on Foreigner E-Satisfaction.
E-Information Quality has a positive effect on Foreigner E-Satisfaction.
Foreigner E-Satisfaction has a positive effect on Foreigner E-Loyalty.
Foreigner E-Satisfaction mediates the relationship between E-Accessibility and Foreigner E-Loyalty.
Foreigner E-Satisfaction mediates the relationship between E-Support Services and Foreigner E-Loyalty.
Foreigner E-Satisfaction mediates the relationship between E-Information Quality and Foreigner E-Loyalty.
Materials and methods
Research design
The quantitative design of this study was done using SEM to assess the relationships between different facets of e-service quality and foreign e-loyalty with e-satisfaction as a mediator (Agarwal & Dhingra, 2023; Askari et al., 2024). It was chosen because of its excellent ability to model complex associations between dependent as well as independent constructs (Musa et al., 2024a). This research focused on foreigners who used immigration services in Central Java, Indonesia (Musa et al., 2024b, c). Purposive sampling was used in this study because only foreign tourists who had used Indonesia's immigration e-services were suitable as respondents. To ensure data relevance, we set clear criteria for selecting participants. Respondents had to: (1) be non-Indonesian citizens, (2) have recently used immigration e-services such as the visa application system or online arrival services and (3) be able to understand and complete the questionnaire. Most respondents were recruited directly at major tourist destinations in Central Java, including Borobudur Temple, Prambanan Temple and Malioboro Street. The research team printed a QR code linked to the online questionnaire and approached foreign tourists in these locations, as well as at immigration offices in the area. After explaining the purpose of the study, foreign tourists were asked to scan the QR code and complete the questionnaire on their mobile devices. Before participating, each person was asked whether they had used Indonesia's immigration e-services such as online visa applications or electronic arrival systems. Only those who confirmed previous use were included in the survey. This direct recruitment method ensured that all respondents had real experience with the e-services being assessed (Kasiami, 2020). Before analysis, all collected responses were checked for completeness. A total of 503 foreign tourists scanned the QR code and began the questionnaire, but only 387 responses were complete. Incomplete questionnaires were removed because SEM requires full data for each indicator and construct. No data imputation was used, and only fully answered questionnaires were included in the final analysis. This approach ensured accuracy and avoided bias in the measurement and structural models (Anita Yunikawati, Purboyo Priambodo, & Sidi, 2022). To perform this survey, we used fieldwork with a structured questionnaire and scaled measurement tools, which were previously validated based on the scientific literature (Agarwal & Dhingra, 2023). He survey was based on a 7-point scale where 1 is strongly disagree to 7 strongly agree, across various dimensions (Aji et al., 2024). Normality tests were conducted before running the SEM analysis. Both skewness and kurtosis values for each indicator were examined, and all items fell within the acceptable range of ±2.0, indicating no serious deviation from normality. AMOS can handle slight non-normality, but the results showed that the data met the recommended thresholds for multivariate analysis. Therefore, the dataset was considered appropriate for SEM. Before estimating the full structural model, we ensured that the SEM model was properly identified. Each latent construct had at least three indicators, which satisfies the minimum requirement for identification in AMOS. The measurement model was tested first using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to confirm that the indicators loaded correctly onto their respective constructs. After achieving acceptable factor loadings, composite reliability and AVE values, the structural model was then estimated. The model showed positive degrees of freedom, indicating that it was over-identified and suitable for SEM analysis.
All questionnaire items were adapted from previously validated instruments used in e-service quality and user satisfaction research. Table A1 in the appendix shows that Items for e-Accessibility were adapted from Patel, Mishra, Chishti, and Modi (2024), focusing on availability, language options and mobile compatibility. On the other hand, Table A2 displays E-Support Services items that were taken from Coe, Birnbaum, Omarufilo, Sigal, and Akiyama (2024), emphasizing response time, resolution and user feedback. Besides that, Table A3 illustrates E-Information Quality items that were adapted from Villa, Ruiz, Valencia, and Picón (2018), covering relevance, completeness and accuracy of information. Tables A4 and A5 shows that Items for e-satisfaction and e-loyalty were adapted from Patel et al. (2024). All items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). This approach ensured that the measurement tools were valid, reliable and consistent with previous studies. The demographic characteristics of respondents were collected using a structured questionnaire, including nationality, age, gender, prior use of Indonesia's immigration e-services and types of e-services utilized (see Appendix A, Table A6).
Verification of the relationships among the variables was done with the help of SEM through the use AMOS software (Junaidi et al., 2024). This consisted of item Measurement Model Validation: CFA was used to test the items of the questionnaire for reliability and validity (Junaidi et al., 2024). A Measurement Model Testing; The assumed relationships between the variables were tested, and the model's fit was checked with the help of indices: Chi-square, RMSEA, CFI, TLI.
Ethical considerations
A review board from a university background has approved ethical clearance for this study. Every participant gave his or her informed consent and was guaranteed confidentiality regarding the nature of the study. Additionally, they were informed that they could withdraw from the study at no penalty whatsoever. This methodological approach implemented in this research enabled a detailed examination of the e-service quality influence on foreigner e-loyalty of international tourists to central Java and thus provides useful information on improvement of the service delivery for better customer satisfaction and customer loyalty.
Results and discussion
This segment discusses the results of the investigation regarding the associations between the e-service quality variables (e-Accessibility, e-Support Services and e-Information Quality), and the Foreigner E-satisfaction, and Foreigner E-loyalty with the Indonesian immigration service. Initially, we checked how reliable and valid were the constructs underlying the structural equation modeling (SEM). These measurements guarantee that the constructs simply employed capture the phenomena they are designed to measure, and as such provide a firm basis to proceed with the analysis of the hypothesized relationships.
Table 1 demonstrates the reliability and validity of the constructs measured in our study on the effects of e-service quality on foreigner e-loyalty with a mediating role of e-satisfaction within the context of Indonesia's immigration services. For E-Accessibility, the loadings of indicators such as the Availability, Language Options and Mobile Compatibility of E-Services are impressively high, all exceeding 0.90, which indicates strong measures of the construct. The composite reliability (CR) is 0.90, and the average variance extracted (AVE) is 0.75, both affirming good internal consistency and satisfactory convergent validity.
Construct reliability and validity
| Variable | Indicators | Loading factor | CR | AVE |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| E-Accessibility | Availability of E-Services | 0.946 | 0.90 | 0.75 |
| Language Options in E-Services | 0.956 | |||
| Mobile Compatibility of E-Services | 0.966 | |||
| E-Support Services | Response Time | 0.917 | 0.89 | 0.73 |
| Resolution Time | 0.925 | |||
| User Feedback on Support | 0.869 | |||
| E-Information Quality | Relevance of E-Information | 0.988 | 0.92 | 0.79 |
| Completeness of E-Information | 0.953 | |||
| Accuracy of E-Information | 0.936 | |||
| Foreigner E-Satisfaction | Overall satisfaction | 0.884 | 0.88 | 0.78 |
| Expectancy disconfirmation | 0.924 | |||
| Performance versus the customer's ideal service | 0.910 | |||
| Foreigner E-Loyalty | Repeat Usage | 0.882 | 0.85 | 0.72 |
| Sharing Positive EWOM | 0.883 | |||
| Engagement Levels | 0.802 |
The E-Support Services construct also shows robust metric results, with Response Time and Resolution Time featuring strong loadings above 0.90, while User Feedback on Support shows a slightly lower yet acceptable loading of 0.869. The construct's CR stands at 0.89, and its AVE is 0.73, indicating strong convergent validity and reliable internal consistency.
E-Information Quality has particularly high loadings for the Relevance and Completeness of E-Information, both above 0.95, and a high loading of 0.936 for the Accuracy of E-Information, demonstrating very effective indicators of the construct. This construct also shows a high CR of 0.92 and an AVE of 0.79, suggesting excellent reliability and convergent validity.
In the Foreigner E-Satisfaction construct, the indicators such as Overall satisfaction, Expectancy disconfirmation and Performance versus the customer's ideal service all show strong loadings, with CR at 0.88 and AVE at 0.78, which are indicative of good internal consistency and strong convergent validity.
Finally, the Foreigner E-Loyalty construct measured through indicators like Repeat Usage, Sharing Positive EWOM and Engagement Levels, also shows good loadings with the strongest at 0.882 for Repeat Usage. The CR of 0.85 and AVE of 0.72 indicate that the construct is reliably measured and exhibits satisfactory convergent validity.
The operationalization of the constructs is confirmed precise from the results. The measurement of both factors and constructs reflects high loading and CR scores which means the questionnaire items are valid and accurately measure e-service quality, satisfaction and loyalty by foreigners to the Indonesian immigration services. Additionally, the high AVE scores suggest that most of the variance in the indicators is accounted for by the constructs, indicating convergent validity of the measures. This validation enables a reasonable level of confidence in the overall structural model, where the direct and indirect relationships of e-service quality dimensions with e-loyalty through e-satisfaction are investigated. This relationship can, therefore, be argued with certainty to be correct and underline the true relationships. Thus, the hope is that we have established a foundation from which we can build a discussion on the practical and theoretical consequences of the findings of this study.
Based on hypothesis testing, Table 2 reveals the relationships of the constructs that include e-service quality, e-satisfaction and e-loyalty in the context of Indonesian immigration services. This confirms the intricate relationships that exist between these constructs and underscores the nuanced effect of the different dimensions of e-service quality on the foreigners' satisfaction and loyalty. The exploration regarding the connection among e-Accessibility and Foreigner E-Satisfaction (H1) has a standardized estimate of 0.04 and p value of 0.706. Accordingly, these figures do demonstrate the impact of the two variables in question although it is non-significant. This also shows us that although e-Accessibility is highly regarded, it does not augment user satisfaction on its own in this case. In contrast, E-Support Services exhibit a highly encouraging impact on Foreigner E-Satisfaction (H2) with positive figures of standardized estimate equal to 0.60 and p value of 0.001 that reinforces support services as a vital cause of user satisfaction.
Hypothesis testing results
| Hypothesis | Path | Standardized estimate | S.E. | Critical ratio | p-value | Statement |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| H1 | E-Accessibility → Foreigner E-Satisfaction | 0.04 | 0.106 | 0.37 | 0.706 | Not Supported |
| H2 | E-Support Services → Foreigner E-Satisfaction | 0.60 | 0.105 | 5.74 | 0.001 | Supported |
| H3 | E-Information Quality → Foreigner E-Satisfaction | 0.27 | 0.063 | 3.86 | 0.001 | Supported |
| H4 | Foreigner E-Satisfaction → Foreigner E-Loyalty | 0.43 | 0.068 | 6.73 | 0.001 | Supported |
| H5 | E-Accessibility → Foreigner E-Loyalty | 0.30 | 0.067 | 4.59 | 0.001 | Supported |
| H6 | E-Support Services → Foreigner E-Loyalty | 0.25 | 0.064 | 3.96 | 0.001 | Supported |
| H7 | E-Information Quality → Foreigner E-Loyalty | 0.23 | 0.060 | 3.96 | 0.001 | Supported |
| H8 | Mediation: E-Accessibility → Foreigner E-Satisfaction → Foreigner E-Loyalty | Sobel Test Results | Sobel z = 0.377 | 0.70 | Not Supported | |
| H9 | Mediation: E-Support Services → Foreigner E-Satisfaction → Foreigner E-Loyalty | Sobel Test Results | Sobel z = 4.279 | 0.00 | Supported | |
| H10 | Mediation: E-Information Quality → Foreigner E-Satisfaction → Foreigner E-Loyalty | Sobel Test Results | Sobel z = 3.571 | 0.00 | Supported | |
Likewise, the quality of E-information has a positive and significant impact towards Foreigner E-Satisfaction (H3) with the value of −0.27 having a p value equal to 0.001. This outcome underscores the impact of the type of information given to the users and their satisfaction levels. The positive and significant path coefficient of 0.43 for the E-Satisfaction and E-Loyalty amount in p value equal to 0.001, proves that indeed satisfaction leads to loyalty thus satisfaction is an important mediator of user loyalty (H4).
Direct effects on Foreigner E-Loyalty are also examined, with E-Accessibility showing a significant standardized estimate of 0.35 and a p-value of 0.001 (H5), indicating a direct and strong influence on loyalty. E-Support Services (H6) and E-Information Quality (H7) also exhibit significant direct effects on Foreigner E-Loyalty, with estimates of 0.25 and 0.23 respectively, both at a p-value of 0.001. These results suggest that beyond influencing satisfaction, the quality of support and information directly contributes to cultivating loyalty among users.
The mediation analyses provide additional insights. The mediating role of E-Satisfaction in the relationship between E-Accessibility and Foreigner E-Loyalty is not supported (H8), as evidenced by a Sobel test result (z = 0.70, p > 0.05). However, the mediating effects of E-Satisfaction between E-Support Services and Foreigner E-Loyalty (H9), and between E-Information Quality and Foreigner E-Loyalty (H10), are both supported with Sobel test results of z = 4.279 and z = 3.571 respectively, both yielding p-values less than 0.05. These findings illuminate the significant role of satisfaction as a conduit through which the quality of support and information translate into enhanced loyalty.
This analysis offers strong evidence that all components of e-service quality are of utmost importance, however, their effects on satisfaction and loyalty differ as satisfaction is a core mediator in most relationships, but not all. These conclusions test existing theories and provide helpful information about the ways e-service delivery can be improved, especially in the public sector like the immigration service. A proper analysis of the relationships among e-service quality dimensions, satisfaction and loyalty reveals ways to improve the user experience and improve the image of immigration services in Indonesia.
Figure 2 depicts the structural model showing the interconnections between dimensions of e-service quality, Foreigner E-Satisfaction and Foreigner E-Loyalty, with an array of goodness of fit statistics to confirm how well the model fits the observed data. The analysis shows complex interactions between the constructs which are confirmed with path coefficients and supported with strong fit indices which confirm the theoretical framework of the model.
The impacts of these attributes are depicted in the diagrams depicting the relationships between E− Accessibility, E-Support Services and E-Information Quality on Foreigner E-Satisfaction and Foreigner E-Loyalty. It is observed that E-Accessibility has an insignificant direct relationship with E-Satisfaction (0.04) but a more significant direct relationship with E-Loyalty (0.31). As such, it can be inferred that E-Accessibility does not contribute to the improvements in user satisfaction but is an important factor in ensuring E-Loyalty “sustainability”. In contrast, E-Support Services and E-Information Quality have a stronger positive relationship towards user's satisfaction and e-loyalty, with scores of 0.60 and 0.27 for user's satisfaction, and 0.25 and 0.23 for e-loyalty, which emphasizes their significance in satisfaction and commitment from users.
The adequacy of a model can be evaluated quantitatively with Goodness of Fit indices. Although the Chi-Square statistic of 269.799 with a corresponding p of 0.000 is statistically significant, it's important to note that the Chi-Square statistic is sensitive to sample size. The 0.078 RMSEA which shows moderate approximation error suggests the model is a good fit. The model GFI = 0.918 and CFI = 0.960 both reflect a high degree of fit between the proposed model, and the data reveal that the model can account for the variance and covariance in the data. In the same way, the TLI of 0.948 and the NFI of 0.944 add weight to the argument for the model's adequacy, confirming that the proposed dependencies are correctly specified in the structure. Although the Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) is somewhat lower and at 0.879, it is still within an acceptable range which supports the notion that the model was constructively adequate. The index suggests that room for improvement exists to balance model validation with complexity and freedom. It can also be noted that the 0.741 value of the Parsimonious Normed Fit Index PCFI reflects the model reservations. E-Accessibility, E-Support Services and E-Information Quality are accurately measured by their indicative variables, which are confirmed by the strong factor loadings for each latent variable. These indicators support the proposed framework because they could measure e-service quality, user satisfaction and loyalty.
The hypothesized relationships are supported by the arguments that stem from the high scores of goodness of fit reported in the structural model, the high and significant path coefficients and the validated measurement indicators. This analysis confirms not only the theoretical propositions of the study but also its practical implications. In particular, the high importance that support services have on user satisfaction and loyalty indicates that these factors should be improved upon. Moreover, the fact that there is a direct effect of assistive services on loyalty means that service accessibility can positively influence user loyalty regardless of the amount of satisfaction with the service received. Such a comprehensive model provides an empirical basis for policymakers and service managers in the immigration sector in relation to what issues should be given priority while trying to improve user satisfaction and loyalty. This can aid in crafting ways of enhancing service delivery and improving the attitude of foreign users towards the country and their services.
The non-significant effect of e-accessibility on e-satisfaction suggests that foreign tourists may view accessibility as a basic and expected feature of immigration e-services rather than a factor that adds value or improves their experience. In other words, being able to access the system easily does not automatically increase satisfaction because users assume that government digital services should already be functional and accessible. Similar results have been noted in public-sector studies where accessibility is treated as a minimum requirement rather than a driver of satisfaction (Aji et al., 2024). In the immigration context, foreign tourists may prioritize other aspects such as clear information, fast support or problem resolution because these elements directly reduce uncertainty and help them complete important procedures correctly. Therefore, while accessibility helps users enter the system, it may not be enough to make them feel satisfied unless the service also provides reliable guidance and responsive support.
The weak relationship between e-accessibility and e-satisfaction may also be explained by cultural, contextual and measurement factors. Foreign tourists come from diverse cultural backgrounds, and their expectations of government digital services differ significantly (Salinas-Perez et al., 2024). As a result, some users may not view accessibility features as important as other elements such as clear instructions or problem-solving support. In immigration settings, users are often under pressure to complete legal procedures correctly, so they focus more on information accuracy and responsiveness rather than basic accessibility (Chan et al., 2022). Contextually, public digital services are perceived differently from commercial platforms, where accessibility is a stronger satisfaction driver. In government systems, users tend to treat accessibility as a minimum standard rather than a source of satisfaction (Aji et al., 2024). Additionally, measurement factors may contribute to this result. Accessibility items typically capture simple usability aspects, which may not fully reflect deeper emotional or cognitive evaluations that influence satisfaction in high-stakes services (Lin et al., 2005). These combined factors help explain why e-accessibility did not significantly influence satisfaction in this study.
The mediation results show that e-satisfaction plays an important role in connecting e-support services and e-information quality to e-loyalty, but not e-accessibility. This means that users become loyal mainly when they feel supported and when information is clear and accurate. Support services, such as quick responses and problem resolution, directly improve satisfaction because they reduce uncertainty and help users' complete immigration tasks smoothly (Anderson & Srinivasan, 2003; Lin et al., 2005). Similarly, information quality increases satisfaction because users rely heavily on correct and complete information when dealing with immigration procedures (Van Riel et al., 2004). When users feel satisfied with these aspects, they are more willing to reuse the service and recommend it to others. However, e-accessibility did not show a mediation effect, which supports earlier findings that accessibility alone does not create satisfaction (Aji et al., 2024). Instead, accessibility may influence loyalty directly without affecting satisfaction, suggesting that users appreciate accessible systems but judge their satisfaction based more on support and information. These findings highlight that satisfaction is shaped by service elements that reduce confusion and provide reassurance factors that are especially important in public digital services such as immigration (Chan et al., 2022). The significant mediation effects show that satisfaction is an important psychological bridge between service quality and user loyalty. When foreign tourists receive fast support and clear information, they feel more confident and secure in using immigration e-services, which increases their satisfaction and ultimately strengthens their loyalty (Anderson & Srinivasan, 2003; Lin et al., 2005). This means that service elements that reduce confusion and provide reassurance have a stronger impact on long-term user behavior. In contrast, the lack of mediation for e-accessibility suggests that accessibility alone does not shape satisfaction in a meaningful way. Instead, users may appreciate accessible systems, but their loyalty depends more on whether the system helps them complete immigration procedures accurately and with less stress (Aji et al., 2024). These findings are important because they show that improving user loyalty in public digital services requires more than just making the platform easy to access; it requires delivering reliable support and high-quality information (Chan et al., 2022). This reinforces the idea that satisfaction is built through meaningful interaction and guidance, not just basic usability.
The results provide several practical insights for improving immigration e-services. First, the strong effects of e-support services and e-information quality on satisfaction and loyalty show that users value clear guidance and timely assistance more than basic system accessibility. This means immigration offices should prioritize improving response time, problem resolution and the clarity of online instructions because these elements directly shape positive user experiences (Van Riel et al., 2004; Lin et al., 2005). Second, the significant direct effect of e-accessibility on loyalty suggests that users still appreciate systems that are easy to access, available in multiple languages and compatible with different devices, even though these features do not increase satisfaction (Aji et al., 2024). This indicates that accessibility helps encourage repeated use but does not influence emotional evaluations of the service. For policymakers and system designers, these findings highlight the need to focus on the quality of support and information rather than relying solely on improving usability. These practical differences between significant and non-significant paths demonstrate that different aspects of e-service quality influence user behavior in different ways, especially in public digital services where accuracy and support are more critical than interface accessibility (Chan et al., 2022).
Conclusion
This study examined how three e-service quality dimensions e-accessibility, e-support services and e-information quality shape foreign tourists' satisfaction and loyalty when using Indonesia's immigration e-services. The results showed that support services and information quality play the strongest roles in improving satisfaction, while accessibility does not significantly affect satisfaction. However, accessibility still has a direct effect on loyalty, which means users appreciate easy system access but judge their satisfaction based on the quality of guidance and support they receive. These findings highlight the need for immigration agencies to focus on timely assistance and clear information to build positive digital experiences. Improving these elements can help foreign tourists' complete immigration procedures more easily and encourage them to reuse and recommend the services. Overall, the study provides practical insights for strengthening digital public services and contributes to a better understanding of how e-service quality affects user satisfaction and loyalty in the immigration sector.
Recommendations and limitation
The findings offer clear recommendations for immigration officers, public administrators and UX designers. Since e-support services and e-information quality strongly influence satisfaction and loyalty, immigration agencies should focus on improving response time, providing quick clarification for user problems and ensuring that online instructions are simple, complete and easy to understand. This includes updating FAQs, adding multilingual explanations and offering clearer step-by-step guidance for visa and arrival procedures. UX designers should prioritize features that help users avoid mistakes, such as automatic error detection, real-time chat support or guided forms. Immigration officers can also use feedback from users to identify which parts of the e-service process cause confusion and adjust their support strategies accordingly. These improvements directly address user needs and can reduce stress and uncertainty for foreign tourists, making Indonesia's immigration system more reliable and user-friendly (Chan et al., 2022; Van Riel et al., 2004).
Beyond improving support and information, immigration agencies can take several additional steps to enhance e-service performance. First, digital platforms should provide clearer communication at every stage of the immigration process, such as automatic status updates, notification reminders and progress-tracking features. These improvements help reduce uncertainty, which is one of the main concerns for foreign tourists using public digital services (Lin et al., 2005). Second, immigration offices should collect and analyze real-time feedback from users to identify recurring problems and adjust system workflows accordingly. This is consistent with public service research showing that user experience improves when agencies adapt services based on actual user needs (Chan et al., 2022). Third, multilingual support and culturally friendly interfaces should be strengthened, given the diverse backgrounds of foreign tourists (Salinas-Perez et al., 2024). Finally, training immigration staff to handle digital inquiries and guide users at physical locations can ensure consistent service quality across both online and offline touchpoints. These steps can help immigration authorities build a more user-centered digital service ecosystem that supports satisfaction and long-term loyalty.
This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the research was conducted only in Central Java, and most respondents were recruited at major tourist destinations such as Borobudur, Prambanan and Malioboro. As a result, the findings may not fully represent all foreign tourists using Indonesia's immigration e-services in other regions. Second, the study used a cross-sectional design, which captures perceptions at one point in time and cannot fully explain how satisfaction or loyalty may change throughout the immigration process (Lin et al., 2005). Third, all data were self-reported and may be influenced by individual expectations, cultural backgrounds or personal experiences with digital systems (Salinas-Perez et al., 2024). Finally, the study focused only on three dimensions of e-service quality; other potentially important factors such as e-trust, website security or perceived risk were not included. These limitations suggest that while the findings provide useful insights, they should be interpreted with caution and examined further in different settings.
These findings also have important implications for migration and public policy. Improving support services and information quality can help reduce processing errors, prevent misunderstandings and enhance compliance with immigration requirements. When digital systems are easier to understand and more responsive, foreign tourists are more likely to complete procedures correctly, which benefits both the users and immigration authorities. This can support Indonesia's broader goals of promoting tourism, improving international mobility and strengthening the country's digital public service reputation.
Future studies can expand this research in several important ways. First, researchers should examine foreign tourists in other regions of Indonesia or compare multiple provinces to see whether digital service experiences differ across locations. Second, longitudinal studies are needed to track changes in satisfaction and loyalty over time, as cross-sectional data cannot capture how user perceptions evolve throughout the immigration process (Lin et al., 2005). Third, future research could include additional variables such as e-trust, perceived security, cultural background or perceived risk, which previous studies have shown to influence satisfaction and loyalty in digital services (Saoula et al., 2023). Fourth, qualitative approaches such as interviews or focus groups could provide deeper insights into specific user challenges that may not be captured by surveys alone. Finally, comparative studies between immigration e-services and other public-sector digital platforms could help identify broader patterns and provide more comprehensive recommendations for improving digital public services.
The supplementary material for this article can be found online.
