Private labels and consumer decision-making in Spain

Private labels (PLs) are brands owned and managed by retailers that compete with national brands (NBs) by offering similar or differentiated products, often at more accessible prices. Initially positioned as low-cost alternatives with acceptable quality, PLs were primarily targeted at price-sensitive consumers (Kumar and Steenkamp, 2007). Over the past 2 decades, however, they have undergone a notable transformation in both quality and image, driven by shifting consumer expectations and increasing retailer investment (Corstjens and Lal, 2000; Li, 2022).

In today’s marketplace, consumers evaluate products not only on the basis of price and functionality, but also through broader value-driven lenses. Aspects such as sustainability, ethical sourcing, transparency, and brand authenticity have become critical in purchase decisions (Cherenkov et al., 2020; Chernev and Blair, 2020; Casteran and Ruspil, 2021; Hoskins et al., 2024). These changes have prompted retailers to expand their PL portfolios with organic, eco-labelled, and socially responsible offerings, supported by clearer labelling and certifications that reinforce trust. Understanding shopper characteristics is essential for retailers aiming to design compelling product offerings and more effectively target potential private label buyers (Larson, 2018).

Although national brands still benefit from higher brand awareness and perceived prestige, many PLs are closing the gap through strategic design, product innovation, and better positioning (Geyskens et al., 2018). Retailers are now leveraging their PLs as instruments for differentiation and long-term customer engagement. Strategic decisions such as whether to use a retailer’s brand or an independent label, and how to segment PL lines by price or quality, are crucial to influencing consumer choice (Gangwani et al., 2020; Musso et al., 2022).

Consumer loyalty toward PLs is also evolving. While still influenced by price, loyalty increasingly depends on quality perceptions, lifestyle alignment, and trust—factors shaped by demographic and psychographic variables such as age, income, environmental awareness, and perceived value (Valaskova et al., 2018; Calvo-Porral and Lévy-Mangin, 2016). In parallel, consumer confidence grows as PLs demonstrate consistency in product quality and ethical standards, particularly among younger and environmentally conscious segments (Sorensen and Johnson Jorgensen, 2024).

Spain presents an especially interesting context. With a PL market share of 45.6% as of mid-2024, among the highest in Europe (PLMA, 2024). Strategies such as disclosing the identity of PL suppliers, often well-known national or international brands, have played a significant role in enhancing consumer trust (Kumar et al., 2010). When consumers are aware of the product’s brand, NBs tend to perform better, underscoring the continued influence of branding on consumer behaviour (Rossi et al., 2015; Ndlovu and Heeralal, 2021; Kurt and Gino, 2023). Spanish retailers have pioneered innovative PL strategies that include diversified product lines, partnerships with trusted manufacturers, and transparent communication about origin and production. Retail chains like Mercadona, Carrefour and Lidl have implemented tiered PL architectures that appeal to different consumer needs, combining price competitiveness with premium, ecological, and local products (Mercadona, 2024; Pérez-Santa María and Martos-Partal, 2021). These strategies enhance both purchase intention and long-term customer loyalty (Rahman and Soesilo, 2018; Ruiz-Real et al., 2018).

This study seeks to explore the drivers of consumer loyalty toward private labels in Spain. Based on a nationwide survey of 1,000 PL shoppers, it examines the influence of product quality, price perceptions, brand recognition, and consumer trust on repeat purchase behaviour and brand commitment. By integrating these dimensions, the study aims to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of PL strategy effectiveness in a mature and dynamic retail environment.

The article is structured as follows: Section 2 presents a theoretical review and the main research hypotheses. Section 3 describes the methodology and analytical model. Section 4 discusses the empirical findings. Finally, Section 5 offers conclusions and avenues for future research.

Private label (PL) products were initially associated with inferior quality, a perception that limited their competitiveness in the early stages of market development (Hoch, 1996). Over time, however, PLs have responded to changing consumer demands by launching premium lines and offering organic, gluten-free, ethical, and vegan alternatives, which have contributed to steady sales growth (Kim et al., 2020; Konuk, 2018; Martinelli and De Canio, 2021; Van Loo et al., 2021).

Two broad consumer profiles dominate brand choice: price-sensitive consumers and quality-driven consumers. The former typically have lower disposable income and prioritize affordability, while the latter are more likely to seek added value and status (Miquel et al., 2017). Research also suggests that factors such as innovativeness and retailer loyalty positively influence attitudes toward PLs (Porral and Lang, 2015; Horvat and Dosen, 2020).

Retailers with low-price positioning tend to foster a stronger emotional bond with value-conscious consumers (Koschate-Fischer et al., 2014). One effective strategy to attract these shoppers is strategic imitation, particularly in packaging. By replicating the design of national brands (NBs), retailers reduce the perceived quality gap. Empirical research confirms that visual similarity in design, colour, and layout enhances purchase intent—especially in low-involvement product categories (Olson, 2012; Kelting et al., 2017).

For example, Mercadona’s Bosque Verde cleaning products closely resemble leading brands such as Fairy or Scottex in shape, colour palette, and packaging cues that convey a similar level of trust. Likewise, Carrefour’s BIO range mimics premium baby food brands like Nestlé NaturNes, leveraging green visuals and health certifications to compete on image. These tactics reduce cognitive load for consumers and support “smart shopping” behaviour (Delgado-Ballester et al., 2014; Mao et al., 2023).

Additionally, strategic shelf placement next to NB counterparts, combined with direct price comparisons, further positions PLs as credible alternatives. This strategy is particularly effective for consumers with greater product knowledge, who interpret visual cues and labels more critically (Kelting et al., 2017).

Based on this theoretical and empirical foundation, we propose the first hypothesis:

A central challenge for retailers is how to position PLs in markets dominated by strong national brands (NBs). Product attributes, especially quality and value, are essential in shaping consumer perceptions (Glynn and Widjaja, 2015; Lin et al., 2017; Aw and Chong, 2019). High-end NBs demand quality-driven competition, whereas low-priced NBs require a focus on price-performance balance (Bontemps et al., 2008; Choi and Coughlan, 2006; Li et al., 2022).

In the literature, brand awareness is generally understood as the extent to which consumers are familiar with a brand, including both spontaneous recall and recognition when prompted (Graciola et al., 2020; Keller, 2003). Within this broader concept, brand recognition refers specifically to a consumer’s ability to identify a brand when exposed to visual or verbal cues, such as packaging, logos, or slogans (Huang and Sarigollu, 2012; Ndlovu, 2024). Research shows that consumer confidence in PLs builds over time as shoppers gain experience and reduce their perceived risk (Batra and Sinha, 2000). However, loyalty to PLs is often transactional rather than emotional, primarily driven by economic incentives (Ailawadi et al., 2008; Konuk, 2022). This makes brand loyalty in PLs more fragile and price-sensitive than in the case of NBs.

At the same time, many retailers are working to shift this dynamic by deploying loyalty programs and promotional strategies aimed at fostering deeper engagement. For example, Carrefour’s app-based system offers personalized discounts and points for purchasing PL products, which strengthens customer retention through habit-forming incentives. Similarly, Mercadona has introduced everyday low pricing strategies and consistent product reformulations to keep consumer satisfaction high, reducing the need for traditional loyalty schemes.

Promotional tools such as in-store signage, discounts for bulk purchases, and strategic shelf placement also play a vital role (Abril and Rodríguez-Cánovas, 2016). Retailers frequently highlight price differences between PLs and comparable NBs, reinforcing value perceptions and encouraging trial. In some cases, loyalty is built through routine more than emotional attachment, especially in low-involvement categories (Arce-Urriza and Cebollada, 2018; Wettstein et al., 2009).

The role of brand recognition in this context is complex. While it traditionally influences consumer choice, particularly in NB markets, its impact is often diminished in PL purchases. This is because many PLs adopt deliberately unbranded or minimalist packaging strategies (such as Lidl and Aldi), which decouple recognition from product choice. That said, in certain categories and among specific consumer segments, brand awareness may still play a subtle role.

Given this complexity, we formulate our second hypothesis as follows:

Private labels (PLs) have evolved significantly, offering broader assortments and higher quality while maintaining competitive prices. This evolution has reinforced the concept of smart shopping, particularly in economically uncertain contexts where consumers seek to balance quality and affordability (Ailawadi et al., 2001).

In Spain, the 2008 financial crisis and more recent inflationary pressures have reshaped purchasing behaviours (Gómez-Suarez et al., 2019). Consumers now often combine premium products with PL alternatives, a practice known as hybrid consumption (Wang et al., 2020). This behaviour reflects a shift from rigid, income-determined purchasing to more flexible, value-driven strategies.

For instance, a typical Spanish consumer might purchase premium olive oil from Carbonell while opting for Mercadona’s Hacendado pasta or yoghurt, illustrating a selective trade-up/trade-down pattern. This hybrid approach shows that purchasing power no longer fully predicts brand choice; instead, perceived value plays a decisive role.

To respond to these changing behaviours, Spanish retailers have refined their PL strategies. Eroski, for example, has segmented its PL portfolio into “Eroski Basic,” “Eroski Seleqtia” (premium), and “Eroski BIO,” targeting diverse consumer needs while reinforcing a unified brand promise around health, quality, and ethics. Carrefour has followed a similar path, offering Carrefour, Carrefour Discount, Carrefour BIO, and Carrefour Selection, creating a tiered structure that reflects hybrid purchasing logic.

This alignment between consumer behaviour and retailer strategy reflects a deeper transformation: trust has become a central factor in PL acceptance. As consumers increasingly rely on PLs for more than just low prices, they develop brand loyalty based on performance, transparency, and consistent value delivery (González-Benito and Martos-Partal, 2014; Shah et al., 2020).

Retailers must therefore address both functional and emotional trust drivers. Functional drivers include reliable quality, accurate labelling, and product safety; emotional drivers relate to alignment with consumer values such as sustainability or local sourcing. For example, Lidl España has positioned many of its PL products under the “Envases Eco Responsables” initiative, reinforcing its environmental credentials and appealing to ethically minded shoppers.

This strategic alignment allows PLs to be positioned not only on price, but also on differentiated value, catering to the complex expectations of modern consumers.

Consequently, we define our third hypothesis:

This study aims to explore purchasing and consumption habits, with a specific focus on private labels (PLs) as compared to national brands (NBs). To achieve this, a descriptive analysis was conducted, examining purchasing behaviour, brand value, and sustainability, with each variable subdivided into multiple dimensions.

In today’s highly competitive marketplace, consumer purchases often carry a strong emotional component, and brands must establish trust with their target audiences. This research is based on a nationwide survey of 1,002 Spanish consumers, designed to capture key characteristics related to shopping behaviour, brand equity, and perceptions of sustainability in PLs versus NBs.

The sample is representative of the Spanish population. A simple random sampling method was employed, with quotas based on age, gender, and geographical area. The data were subsequently weighted according to figures provided by the Spanish National Institute of Statistics (INE, 2024), ensuring consistency with the national population distribution by age bracket and region.

The final sample consists of individuals aged 26 and older, distributed across all regions of Spain. The gender composition is 49.3% male and 50.7% female. The age distribution is as follows: 16.7% are between 26 and 35 years old; 21.2% between 36 and 45; 22.3% between 46 and 55; 19.9% between 56 and 65; and 20.1% are over 65.

To ensure ethical standards and minimize potential response bias, all participants were guaranteed full anonymity. The survey was conducted under strict confidentiality protocols, helping to reduce the risk of social desirability bias and other distortions associated with self-reported data.

Geographically, respondents are spread across all autonomous communities of Spain: 16.4% reside in Andalusia, 3.3% in Aragon, 2.6% in Asturias, 2.6% in the Balearic Islands, 10% in the Valencian Community, 4.7% in the Canary Islands, 1.2% in Cantabria, 3.8% in Castilla-La Mancha, 4.1% in Castilla y León, 16.7% in Catalonia, 2.1% in Extremadura, 6.1% in Galicia, 1.4% in La Rioja, 15.2% in Madrid, 2.8% in Murcia, 1.5% in Navarre, and 5.7% in the Basque Country.

Regarding employment status, 8.1% of respondents are entrepreneurs or self-employed, 51.4% are employed, 13.7% are unemployed, 23.8% are retired, and 3.1% fall into other categories. In terms of household composition, 93.5% of households include four or fewer members, and 33.5% have children under the age of 16. As for educational attainment, 4.7% of respondents have completed only primary education, 46.3% have secondary education, and 49% hold a university degree. Household income distribution is as follows: 13.3% report earnings below €1,000; 37.6% between €1,001 and €2,000; 29.3% between €2,001 and €3,000; 11.3% between €3,001 and €4,000; 5.1% between €4,001 and €5,000; and 3.0% report income above €5,001.

The survey collects data on consumer habits, including the frequency of household shopping, preferred retail chains, product categories purchased under private labels (PLs), and motivations for choosing PLs. Respondents also evaluate the importance of various store-related and product-related attributes, including perceived quality. These responses are analysed to identify the key factors driving loyalty to PL products.

First, consumer behaviour is examined in relation to the product categories purchased. Specifically, the analysis focuses on the number of PL product categories bought by each respondent. The eight product categories considered are:

1. Packaged foods.

2. Chocolates and sweets.

3. Ice cream and frozen foods.

4. Dairy products, yoghurts, and desserts.

5. Personal hygiene products.

6. Household hygiene products.

7. Water and beverages.

8. Others.

Based on the number of PL categories purchased, consumers are classified into four segments:

1. Non-buyers: Do not purchase PL products in any category.

2. Light buyers: Purchase PL products in 1–3 categories.

3. Medium buyers: Purchase PL products in 4–6 categories.

4. Heavy buyers: Purchase PL products in more than 7 categories.

This segmentation is based on the idea that consumers typically exhibit low brand loyalty, particularly toward PLs. Loyalty is therefore assessed not through repeated purchases within a single product category, but rather through the diversity of categories in which consumers choose PL products.

Consumers who purchase PLs across a broad range of categories are classified as heavy buyers, indicating stronger adoption and brand commitment. Medium buyers purchase across 4 to 6 categories, while light buyers are those who purchase in 1–3. Respondents who do not purchase PLs in any category are considered non-buyers.

This segmentation method provides a more comprehensive view of consumer openness toward PLs, rather than loyalty to specific brands or product lines.

In our sample, medium buyers and light buyers represent the largest segments, accounting for 40.9% and 33.4% of respondents, respectively. Non-buyers comprise the smallest group, representing just 3.7%. Overall, the data show that the majority of consumers purchase PL products in at least four categories, although heavy buyers, those with the broadest adoption, represent 22% of the total sample.

Table 1 shows that among the PL categories, household hygiene products and dairy products, yoghurts, and desserts are the most frequently purchased (particularly the latter among medium buyers). In contrast, ice cream and frozen foods show the lowest level of penetration.

Table 2 illustrates that heavy buyers, those who consume PL products across the most categories, tend to shop primarily at Mercadona and Lidl. These chains are leaders in PL development and offer a wide assortment of own brand food products.

As shown in Table 3, non-buyers and light buyers tend to perceive PLs as being only 10%–20% cheaper than national brands. This perception likely explains why price is not a decisive factor for these segments. In contrast, heavy buyers are more likely to believe that PLs are significantly cheaper, which reinforces their preference for these products.

Finally, Table 4 reveals that non-buyers are disproportionately represented in higher income brackets, particularly in the €4,001 to €5,000 range. This suggests that price is not a determining factor for their choice to avoid private labels, and that other motivations, such as perceived quality or brand preference, may be at play.

To conduct our study, we developed an indicator to classify respondents based on their level of loyalty to PL brands. This indicator was constructed using the following five variables:

1. Tendency to choose PL products (V1r1)

2. Loyalty to PL brands (V1r2)

3. Consistency in purchasing PL products (V1r3)

4. Satisfaction with the PL brand (V1r4)

5. Satisfaction with previous PL purchases (V1r5)

Each item was rated on a five-point Likert scale, where 1 represented “not at all important” and 5 indicated “very important.” To facilitate interpretation, the resulting 25-point scale (the sum of the five items) was converted into a 10-point scale. For instance, if a respondent rated all five items with a score of 5, the total score would be 25; this value was divided by 25 and multiplied by 10, resulting in a final score of 10.

This methodology offers a robust approach to assessing consumer loyalty, combining multiple dimensions of behaviour and perception. The use of five items ensures a more comprehensive view of loyalty, while standardizing the scale to 10 points allows for easier comparison and interpretation. By aggregating the responses, we obtained a consistent and normalized measure that reflects the respondent’s overall level of loyalty toward PLs.

We also established score thresholds to differentiate between varying levels of loyalty. Respondents with medium loyalty, defined by scores between 5.2 and 8, represented the largest group (57.9%). Further analysis revealed a skew toward higher loyalty levels: 23.8% of respondents scored closer to 10, while only 18.4% scored near the lower end of the scale (closer to 1). These results suggest that PL loyalty is relatively widespread, with a significant portion of respondents demonstrating strong commitment to these brands.

In addition, our study sought to identify the characteristics that most contribute to explaining PL loyalty. Based on a list of 25 variables, we aimed to determine which attributes are most strongly associated with higher levels of consumer loyalty.

Respondents indicated their level of agreement with each statement on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = “strongly disagree” to 5 = “strongly agree”), following standard practices in consumer behaviour research (Dolnicar et al., 2011; Boria-Reverter et al., 2013; Farah et al., 2018). These 25 variables are presented in Table 6.

The factor analysis enabled us to group attributes based on the interdependencies identified among them, thereby simplifying both interpretation and analysis. All 25 variables were included in the analysis, and several factor solutions were tested, ranging from 5 to 11 factors.

After extensive testing, we determined that the optimal solution was an eight-factor structure. For example, while a five-factor solution explained 68.4% of the variance -close to the 70% benchmark – an eleven-factor solution offered less than a 2% improvement in variance explained, at the expense of interpretability. As shown in Table 5, the eight-factor solution explains 76.1% of the total variance. In other words, the factor analysis condensed the 25 original variables, which represented 100% of the initial information, into eight dimensions, thereby facilitating interpretation by clustering related items.

Beyond the eighth factor, the additional components contributed minimal explanatory power. Therefore, incorporating more factors would not have added significant analytical value.

The decision to adopt the eight-factor model was supported by the logical grouping of variables and the interpretability of the resulting structure. The factors identified are:

1. Quality

2. Utility and benefits of PLs

3. Assortment and convenience of purchase

4. Price

5. Recognition

6. Local culture

7. Willingness to pay

8. Services

The choice of an eight-factor solution is justified by the following criteria:

1. Kaiser’s Criterion (Eigenvalues >1):

According to this criterion, only factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 are considered significant. In the rotated component matrix, factor 8 is the last to meet this threshold (eigenvalue = 1.004). Beyond this point, eigenvalues fall below 1, indicating limited explanatory power.

1. Cumulative Variance Explained:

The eight-factor solution accounts for approximately 76.1% of the total variance, a robust level that captures the majority of the variance present in the original dataset.

1. Incremental Variance Contribution:

Factors beyond the eighth offer diminishing returns. For instance, factor 9 contributes only 2.275% of additional variance and has an eigenvalue well below 1 (0.569), providing limited added value.

1. Parsimony and Interpretability:

This structure strikes a balance between model complexity and clarity. Reducing the number of factors would sacrifice explained variance, while increasing it would make the model more difficult to interpret without offering substantial analytical gains.

1. Conceptual Validity of Single-Item Factors:

Although factors are typically expected to consist of multiple items to ensure internal reliability, three of the extracted factors (“Services,” “Local Culture,” and “Willingness to Pay”) are composed of a single attribute. Rather than representing a limitation, this configuration reflects the strong discriminant power of these items. In exploratory factor analysis, the emergence of unidimensional factors with high loadings and no cross-loadings indicates that they are distinctive, conceptually sound constructs. Their statistical independence also supports the orthogonality required for clear factor interpretation and model robustness.

In summary, the eight-factor solution offers an optimal framework for interpreting the underlying dimensions represented in the data.

In Table 6, which presents the rotated component matrix, we can observe how the 25 variables are grouped into these eight factors. Notably, the first factor, “Quality,” includes the largest number of items. In contrast, “Local Culture,” “Willingness to Pay,” and “Services” are composed of only one variable each.

The grouping of the 25 variables into 8 factors allowed us to apply a multiple linear regression analysis using customer loyalty to private labels as the dependent variable. This analysis aims to determine which of the eight factors has the greatest explanatory power in predicting consumer loyalty.

Through this regression model, we establish the relationship between the loyalty indicator (dependent variable) and the factors derived from the factor analysis (independent variables), identifying the most influential drivers of PL loyalty. The model demonstrates strong explanatory power, with an R value of 0.880 and an R-squared value of 0.775, indicating a reliable and well-fitting model (see Table 7).

By design, factor analysis extracts orthogonal (uncorrelated) components from a set of correlated variables. This orthogonality ensures that the resulting factors are statistically independent from one another, eliminating overlap and redundancy.

As a result, when performing multiple regression using these orthogonal factors as independent variables, the problem of multicollinearity is inherently avoided. This enhances the robustness of the model and allows for a more precise interpretation of the beta coefficients, each reflecting the unique and independent contribution of a given factor to the dependent variable: Brand loyalty.

In summary:

1. The orthogonality of extracted factors ensures statistical independence.

2. The absence of multicollinearity makes beta coefficients interpretable and reliable.

3. The high R-squared value (0.775) reflects strong explanatory power not inflated by correlated predictors.

Given the statistical independence of the factors, we rely on the standardized beta coefficients in Table 8 to estimate the relative weight of each factor in shaping consumer loyalty to PLs. The analysis shows that the factor “Quality”, is the most important factor, with a standardized beta of 27.5%, confirming that perceived quality remains the strongest driver of PL purchasing decisions, even in a segment traditionally associated with low prices. The second most influential factor is “Utility”, with 20.3%, indicating that functionality, reliability, and the product’s ability to meet consumer needs also play a key role. “Recognition” follows with 12.6%, suggesting that brand awareness and familiarity with PL brands still matter in shaping behaviour. Interestingly, “Price” ranks fourth, with 10.2%, which challenges the common assumption that PL choices are driven primarily by cost. This result suggests that consumers are increasingly willing to pay more for PL products if they are confident in the quality and value provided. The remaining factors, show comparatively lower impact and are less decisive in shaping PL loyalty.

This study presents several significant insights into consumer behaviour and the increasing prominence of private labels (PLs) in the Spanish market. First, our results underscore the growing role of PLs as competitive alternatives to manufacturer brands, particularly during periods of economic uncertainty. By the first half of 2024, PLs had captured over 45% of the market share in Spain (PLMA, 2024). Their rapid expansion is especially evident in inflationary contexts, where reduced purchasing power drives consumers to seek products that balance affordability and quality. Notably, approximately 63% of respondents reported purchasing PL products in four to seven of the categories analysed.

Second, our consumer segmentation identified four distinct groups based on PL usage intensity: “Non-buyers,” “Light buyers,” “Medium buyers,” and “Heavy buyers.” Medium and heavy buyers showed a clear preference for categories such as household hygiene and dairy products. The demographic analysis revealed a higher propensity for PL purchases among women and individuals aged 36 to 55. Mercadona and Lidl emerged as the preferred retailers for heavy PL buyers, owing to their extensive and well-curated product assortments.

Our analysis identified eight key drivers of PL loyalty: perceived quality, functional utility, brand recognition, price, assortment and convenience, cultural alignment, service, and willingness to pay. Among these, perceived product quality and utility stood out as the strongest predictors of loyalty, supporting H1, which proposed a positive relationship between perceived quality and consumer loyalty to PLs. The consistency of quality across product categories enhances trust and fosters long-term engagement.

In contrast to our expectations in H2, which hypothesized a minimal impact of brand recognition, the results reveal a statistically significant influence. Consumers value not only price and quality, but also the familiarity of recognizable PL brands. This finding led us to reject H2 and acknowledge brand recognition as a relevant driver of purchase decisions.

Moreover, while quality emerged as the dominant factor, our findings suggest a more nuanced interplay between brand familiarity and cultural alignment in shaping consumer attachment. Consumers purchasing PLs across multiple categories tend to favour retailers whose brands are not only familiar but also culturally resonant. For example, Mercadona and Lidl have developed strong brand familiarity through consistent in-store experiences, coherent packaging, and unified communication strategies. This reinforces trust and habitual purchasing. Additionally, alignment with local cultural values, such as offering regionally relevant products, supporting local producers, or incorporating traditional recipes, enhances the perception of authenticity and emotional connection. This cultural proximity acts as a subtle yet effective differentiator, particularly in food and household categories.

Overall, the findings indicate that brand loyalty in the PL context is multidimensional, shaped not only by functional attributes like quality and price but also by emotional and cultural relevance. Retailers aiming to foster long-term loyalty should implement integrated strategies that combine product excellence with brand coherence and local resonance.

Finally, H3, which posited a positive relationship between consumer trust and loyalty, was supported. Trust in PL products, built through reliable quality, retailer consistency, and transparent communication, emerges as a cornerstone of repeated purchasing and brand allegiance, particularly in competitive retail environments such as Spain.

From a managerial perspective, these findings translate into several actionable recommendations for retailers. First, adopting differentiated pricing strategies (e.g. basic, premium, and ecological PL tiers) can help address diverse consumer segments while reinforcing perceived value. Second, investing in visual cues and distinctive packaging, such as eco-labels and third-party certifications, can offset lower brand awareness and enhance credibility. Third, assortment strategies should prioritize consistency, availability, and cultural relevance, offer regionally adapted products and reinforce identity through shelf layout and in-store messaging. Lastly, transparent communication about product origin, ethical sourcing, and retailer values can strengthen consumer trust and emotional loyalty, especially among younger, more sustainability-oriented consumers.

While this study provides valuable insights, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the geographical focus on Spain limits the generalizability of the findings to broader international contexts that may differ in retail structures, the maturity of private label markets, and consumer preferences.

Second, the study relies on self-reported survey data, which may be affected by response biases and does not fully capture the complexity of real-world in-store behaviour. Furthermore, qualitative dimensions of consumer experience, such as emotional responses, symbolic brand meanings, or habitual purchasing rituals, remain unexplored.

Another important limitation is the lack of integration of macro-environmental variables, such as economic downturns, inflation volatility, supply chain disruptions, or regulatory developments (e.g. sustainability requirements or food labelling standards). These contextual factors can significantly influence both retailer strategies and consumer attitudes toward PLs.

Taken together, these limitations underscore the need for more integrative research approaches in future studies. Combining quantitative and qualitative methods and accounting for economic, social, and regulatory dynamics would help generate more robust and generalizable insights into private label consumption behaviour.

Future research should aim to deconstruct the key components of product quality that consumers associate with PL loyalty ranging from durability and taste to packaging, design, and perceived safety. A more granular analysis of the other loyalty drivers identified in this study, such as perceived utility, price sensitivity, brand familiarity, and cultural alignment, would also enrich the theoretical understanding of PL loyalty mechanisms.

In addition, future studies could explore the role of sensory and atmospheric stimuli in physical retail environments, including lighting, scent, background music, and store layout. These elements may significantly influence consumer perceptions, emotions, and purchase intentions, particularly in low-involvement categories where emotional differentiation is minimal.

Another promising avenue involves investigating the impact of consumer memory and brand recall, to better understand how sensory cues and in-store experiences shape long-term brand associations. Experimental designs could be used to measure how variables such as packaging aesthetics, shelf placement, or promotional framing affect brand recognition and loyalty toward PLs.

Finally, future research would benefit from adopting experimental and quasi-experimental designs, including A/B testing in digital retail platforms or in-store behavioural tracking. These methodologies would allow for a more accurate identification of causal relationships between specific marketing stimuli and consumer responses, thereby enhancing the evidence base for effective PL strategy development.