Talent management and organizational citizenship behavior. Exploring the role of organizational support and age-related differences

The contemporary economic realities, characterized by intense market competition, high dynamics of changes in the organizations' environment and declining demand due to rising inflation in recent months, have led to a significant increase in risk and uncertainty in managing the organization. These tendencies have contributed to the weakening of bonds between employees and employers who, facing difficult market conditions, are unable to provide their staff with stable, long-term employment. This, in turn, evokes in employees growing dissatisfaction, lower work engagement and willingness to change jobs. In response to the economic challenges of the 21st century, organizational leaders decide to implement the TM programs to mitigate the loss of talented employees and meet the company's current and future competency needs (Seopa, Wöcke, & Leeds, 2015).

Presently, TM is perceived by academics and practitioners as one of the priorities in management. This is evidenced by the extensive literature and conferences dedicated to this issue (e.g., the EIASM Workshop on Talent Management (TM)), as well as the growing number of companies implementing TM programs. What is more, opinions of managers and human resources (HR) specialists reflected in the research reports (e.g. Deloitte, 2020; PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2022; Boston Consulting Group, 2023) suggest that TM will be even more significant in the future. The great importance of TM results primarily from increasing competition among companies for limited resources of talented employees, which is called in the literature as “the War for Talent” (Michaels, Handfield-Jones, & Axelrod, 2001).

Despite the ongoing vigorous discussion on TM over the past few decades, the question that still remains unanswered is: How do practices in this area affect the employees' behavior? Recent studies exposed some evidence that TM enhances organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), that is behavior associated with organizational outcomes in previous research. For example, Kuntonbutr and Sangperm (2019) investigated how TM is beneficial to companies in terms of customer satisfaction through employees' work engagement and OCB. Their study indicates that TM affects both work engagement and OCB, which consequently enhance customer satisfaction. Mensah and Bawole (2018) tested the mediating role of person-organization (P-O) fit in the relationship between TM and employees' job satisfaction and OCB. The authors found that TM positively influences person-organization fit, job satisfaction and OCB, and P-O fit partially mediates the association between TM and both job satisfaction, and OCB. Wikhamn, Asplund, and Dries (2021) examined how identification with management and the organization explains the relationship between talent status, OCB toward the organization and the supervisor, and turnover intention. The results obtained showed the existence of a serial mediation effect in which talent status affects OCB toward the organization and intention to leave through identification with management and identification with organization.

Although the linkage between TM and OCB is supported by empirical findings, the process through which TM practices can foster employees' citizenship behaviors is still not very well known, especially in non-Western economies. Furthermore, as the literature on generational changes (e.g. Benítez-Márquez, Sánchez-Teba, Bermúdez-González, & Núnez-Rydman, 2022; Latukha, Kriklivetc, & Podgainyi, 2022) suggests, the effect of TM on OCB may be affected by age-related differences. The existing research gap makes managers lack scientific grounds for making decisions related to talented employees.

My study addresses this issue by examining the impact of TM practices on individual- and organization-directed OCB with the mediating role of perceived organizational support (POS). I also shed light on the conditioning of these associations and verify the moderating effect of employees' age on the relationship between POS and OCB as their beliefs in reciprocity tend to decrease with age (Perugini, Gallucci, Presaghi, & Ercolani, 2003). The social exchange theory (Blau, 2017) was used to explain the psychological processes that are involved in shaping employee reactions to TM. I also apply generational theory (Howe & Strauss, 2000) to the work context in order to develop and test hypotheses concerning the conditions under which TM results in enhanced citizenship behavior. The article expands the knowledge of employees' reactions to TM and, consequently, gives an enhanced insight into the results of TM at the individual level. It also provides a more complex view of the conditions impacting the outcomes of TM.

The structure of the article is as follows. I first present the theoretical background of the study, hypothesis development and the conceptual framework of empirical investigations. The data collection method, sampling and measures employed in the study are subsequently described. The next section shows the results of the statistical analyses. The following part of the manuscript provides a discussion of the findings, followed by implications for business practice, as well as indicates the limitations of the study and possible directions of future research. At the end of the article, I summarize the most important conclusions drawn from my investigations. The research was carried out within the research project 2018/31/N/HS4/03,936, funded by the National Science Centre, Poland.

TM is actually a multilevel construct consisting of distinct, hierarchically ordered components – that is, principles, policies, programs and practices (De Boeck, Meyers, & Dries, 2017). The existing literature operationalize these components at different, independent levels of abstraction. Ordered from more to less abstract, principles, policies and programs are all considered as global components designed by organizational leaders and HR managers. In contrast, TM practices represent a less abstract component that depends on how well TM programs are implemented by lower-level managers (De Boeck et al., 2017). The range of practices that are unified under the umbrella of TM is well documented (Dries, 2013) and has been translated into a number of operationalizations by TM scholars (De Boeck et al., 2017). As the practices are situated at the lowest level of abstraction, in this article TM is operationalized as a set of intended human resources management (HRM) practices focused on remarkably talented people in the organization, which includes networking, internal project teams, special tasks to stimulate learning, in-house development programs, cross-disciplinary project working, instructor-led off the job training, formal career plans, coaching, mentoring, assessment centers, graduate development programs, succession plans, high-flier schemes, university courses, training in international operations, short-term international systems, international project teams, internal and secondments, and job rotation (Tatoglu, Glaister, & Demirbag, 2016). Nevertheless, Kock and Burke (2008), and more recently, Oehley and Theron (2010) emphasize that TM is not a single practice that affects performance, but a whole set of practices together, and it is difficult to differentiate which of them influence the most. Therefore, in my study, an integrated set of TM practices is analyzed. These practices, as well as principles, policies and programs differ heavily across organizations with various companies approaching TM in different ways (Gelens, Dries, Hofmans, & Pepermans, 2015). Effective TM practices can lead to enhanced organizational effectiveness (Ali, Bashir, & Mehreen, 2019), profitability (Ulrich, Guijarro-Garcia, Perez-Ruiz, & Hernandez-Gadea, 2022) and competitive advantage (Abu-Darwish, Al-Kasasbeh, & Al-Khasawneh, 2022). Previous research also indicates that TM positively influences employees' attitudes and behavior, such as employee engagement (Ali et al., 2019), organizational commitment (Luna-Arocas, Danvila-Del Valle, & Lara, 2020), turnover intention (Supi, Irawanto, & Puspaningrum, 2023) and OCB (Mensah, 2019).

Although previous research has documented several positive outcomes of TM, more recent studies have increasingly emphasized the distinction between the intended design of talent practices and employees' subjective experience of these practices (Jooss & Krebs, 2024). While organizations introduce TM systems to identify and develop employees considered crucial for future success, the effects of such systems depend on how talent pool members interpret the practices they experience (Jooss & Krebs, 2024; Wang, Li, Zhu, & Chen, 2024). Developmental opportunities, career planning, coaching, mentoring and participation in special projects may be perceived not only as HR instruments, but also as signals that the organization recognizes employees' value and is willing to invest in their future (Wang et al., 2024). This employee-centered perspective is important because formally implemented TM practices do not automatically produce positive employee reactions; rather, their effects depend on whether employees experience them as supportive, fair and development-oriented (Supi et al., 2023). Therefore, contemporary TM research calls for closer attention not only to employee reactions to talent practices, but also to the psychological mechanisms through which TM affects work-related attitudes and behaviors (Björk, Bolander, & Forsman, 2022; Menezes, Gumashivili, & Kanokon, 2025).

OCB refers to work-related activities performed by employees that are discretionary, are not directly or explicitly recognized by scope of job description (do not belong to the formal duties of employees), but foster the effective and efficient functioning of the organization (Organet al., 2006). Williams and Anderson (1991) identified two broad types of citizenship behavior: individual- and organization-directed OCB (OCBI and OCBO). OCBI are behaviors that benefit specific individuals and indirectly through this means contribute to the organization (e.g. helps others who have been absent at work, takes a personal interest in other employees). OCBO refers to behaviors that benefit the organization in general (e.g. adheres to informal rules devised to maintain order, protects organizational property). Research indicates that OCB is influenced by various factors, including employee perceptions of fairness, leadership styles and individual attitudes such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, & Blume, 2009). Additionally, the presence of a supportive organizational culture can significantly boost OCB, as employees are more likely to engage in such behaviors when they feel valued and supported by their organization (Luen et al., 2019). OCB is also linked to organizational effectiveness, such as customer satisfaction and operational efficiency (Walz & Niehoff, 2000).

POS refers to employees' beliefs regarding the extent to which their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being (Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, & Rhoades, 2001). It reflects the perceptions of the support and assistance provided by the organization when needed, reflecting the organization's willingness to appreciate and aid employees in effectively carrying out their duties (Linda, Yonita, & Silvia, 2019). This perception can be significantly shaped by various organizational practices, policies and the behaviors of supervisors and colleagues. Research findings consistently demonstrate that POS plays a crucial role in shaping employee attitudes and behavior within the workplace. Individuals who perceive strong organizational support are more engaged in their work, demonstrate a higher level of organizational commitment and exhibit OCB (Alshaabani, Naz, Magda, & Rudnák, 2021). Furthermore, POS has been associated with positive emotional outcomes, such as increased job satisfaction and reduced stress, contributing to a healthier workplace environment (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002).

The association between TM and OCB among talent pool members has been supported in previous research (e.g. Mensah & Bawole, 2018). TM creates a work environment where employees feel valued and see opportunities for personal and professional growth (Ardiansyah, Hamidah, & Susita, 2020). This supportive environment encourages talent pool members to go above and beyond their job requirements, fostering a culture of cooperation and mutual assistance. When employees perceive that their employer is fulfilling its obligations – such as providing career advancement and recognizing employees' contributions – they are more likely to engage in behaviors that benefit the organization beyond their formal job descriptions. Conversely, a breach of this psychological contract can lead to decreased motivation and reduced OCB (Mensah, 2019). In line with this rationale, research findings suggest that organizations with a strong culture of appreciation and recognition exhibit higher levels of OCB, as employees feel more motivated to contribute to the organization's success (Pouramini & Fayyazi, 2015). Recent empirical studies also provide support for the positive relationship between TM and OCB. For example, Li and Prasittisuk (2024) found that TM practices positively influence OCB and task performance among academic staff. Similarly, Widodo (2023) showed that TM significantly affects OCB, with job involvement acting as a mediator in this relationship. These findings are consistent with the broader stream of research indicating that TM may foster positive employee reactions and extra-role behaviors such as OCB, although the mechanisms through which these effects occur require further investigation (Hendrawan, Rosari, & Nastiti, 2024). As such, the following hypotheses are formulated:

Previous research on TM (e.g. Gelens et al., 2015; Mensah, 2019) has shown that organizational efforts in this area have a positive impact on POS. This relationship can be explained by the fact that HRM practices aimed at recognizing and appreciating employees' contributions to the organization are perceived as symptoms of support and indicate that the organization seeks to establish a long-term relationship with them (Allen, Shore, & Griffeth, 2003). Employees who are included in the talent pool get a stronger recognition of their potential as they receive a higher status than others. Moreover, they usually obtain significant development opportunities, additional incentives, as well as opportunities for career advancement, which are seen as signs of preferential treatment and consequently trigger their engagement and commitment (Gelens, Hofmans, Dries, & Pepermans, 2014). Similarly, Björkman, Ehrnrooth, Mäkelä, Smale, and Sumelius (2013) argue that inclusion into the talent pool is taken by employees as a signal that the organization values their effort, and that they feel the employer has fulfilled part of the psychological contract by investing in their careers. The link between TM practices and POS has also received support in recent literature. Supi et al. (2023) showed that TM practices increase employees' POS, while Weng, Shen, and Kan (2023) and Zada et al. (2024) also reported positive associations between TM and POS. These findings suggest that talent-related practices may strengthen POS because employees may interpret them as evidence of organizational recognition, investment and support. Therefore, it seems reasonable to propose the following hypothesis:

The literature on organizational behavior (e.g. Liu, 2004; Kuvaas & Dysvik, 2010) suggests that a strong perception of organizational support results in OCB. When employees feel that their efforts are appreciated and their well-being is cared for by their employer, they are more inclined to reciprocate the support obtained by demonstrating behaviors that benefit the organization as a whole, such as going above and beyond their formal job requirements (Afsar & Badir, 2016; Detnakarin & Rurkkhum, 2019). This is in line with previous research that has demonstrated positive relationships between POS and OCB. For example, Kao, Cho, and Kao (2023) showed that POS is positively related to OCB. Similarly, Ngwa and Bayram (2026) confirmed a positive relationship between POS and OCB, while also showing that POS is negatively associated with turnover intention. These findings indicate that employees who perceive stronger organizational support are more likely to exhibit citizenship behaviors. Based on the above, the following hypotheses are proposed:

If TM practices are interpreted as indications of organizational investment and support, and if POS encourages employees to reciprocate through citizenship behavior, then POS becomes a plausible psychological mechanism linking TM with OCB. In this sense, POS does not merely represent another positive employee attitude, but explains how talent-related practices acquire behavioral significance. This view is consistent with recent studies in which POS has been treated as a mediating mechanism between TM practices and employee outcomes (Supi et al., 2023; Zada et al., 2024). Accordingly, the present study assumes that TM practices may foster OCBI and OCBO indirectly by strengthening talent pool members' perception of organizational support. Such an assumption is grounded in social exchange theory, according to which employees engage in exchange relationships with the organization and may reciprocate favorable treatment with behaviors that benefit the organization. From this perspective, employees negotiate exchanges with the organization in which actions of one party evoke reciprocation by the other. Therefore, they will adjust their behavior depending on how they think the organization perceives them in terms of value and potential. Applied to TM, such a social exchange would imply that, when the employer invests in talent pool members, for example, by funding their development or enabling career advancement, they are then expected to feel obligated to reciprocate these investments with beneficial attitudes and behaviors (Kuvaas & Dysvik, 2010). Meeting such obligations helps employees maintain a positive self-image of those who repay debts and avoid the social stigma associated with the violation of the norm of reciprocity (Eisenberger et al., 2001). As a consequence, employees who perceive high support are intrinsically stimulated to do the things that the organization values and prioritizes (Swailes & Blackburn, 2016) and demonstrate OCB to compensate for the advantageous treatment they receive from the employer. Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

The literature on generational changes (e.g. Schroth, 2019; Younas & Bari, 2020; Deloitte, 2022; Latukha et al., 2022) indicates that Baby Boomers, Generation X, Millennials and Generation Z differ in their character, personality, needs, expectations, ambitions and aspirations, ways of thinking and decision-making, reactions to change and innovation, as well as in their attitudes toward work and employer. These differences lead to the development of different motives for OCB. Research conducted by Perugini et al. (2003) proved that young people hold a strong belief in the need to reciprocate received help, and this belief in reciprocity tends to decrease with age. Consequently, in order for young employees to feel a sense of obligation toward their employer, leading to a broader repertoire and greater frequency of citizenship behaviors, they need to experience stronger organizational support. Older employees do not treat the organization instrumentally (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999), and therefore, organizational support has a limited role in shaping their behavior. Recent studies on generational diversity in TM further support this view. Younger generations (Millennials and Generation Z) place greater emphasis on immediate recognition, developmental opportunities and perceived support, making the link between POS and OCB particularly strong for them (Latukha et al., 2022; Benítez-Márquez et al., 2022). Thus, it can be expected that the relationships between POS and OCB will be stronger among younger employees. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that:

In summary, I assumed that TM practices constitute a crucial antecedent of talent pool members' OCBI and OCBO, and POS is a transmission mechanism through which these practices affect both types of citizenship behavior. It is also expected that age-related differences moderate the effect of POS on OCB. Based on the literature review, an integrated conceptual framework for empirical investigations is proposed (see Figure 1).

The aim of the study was achieved by an empirical investigation into the relationships between TM practices, POS and OCB. I surveyed senior or line managers and participants of TM programs (so-called talents) from October 2020 to January 2021. The survey allowed a significant number of replies to be obtained at a low cost, does not induce an immediate reply and gives the respondents a feeling of autonomy.

The data were collected by means of online questionnaires sent to 500 organizations from the 2020 list of the largest companies in terms of revenue operating in Poland. The rationale for conducting the study on a sample of large companies is that the core research subject, that is TM, occurs mainly in this type of organizations. Small and medium-sized enterprises decide less often to implement TM programs due to their low level of HRM (Kraus, Strużyna, & Ingram, 2007). Purposive sampling was used, as in most studies on TM (e.g. Björkman et al., 2013; Gelens et al., 2015; Seopa et al., 2015, Swailes & Blackburn, 2016). Conducting the research on a random sample was not possible owing to the lack of a register of companies that manage talents in a deliberate and organized manner. As I was collecting data during the pandemic and my target groups of respondents were hard to reach, I recruited participants by distributing questionnaires via contact persons in the HR departments. In each company, they reached out to managers and employees identified as talents, explaining the aims of the study and the importance of their participation.

In total, 830 respondents were surveyed, including 730 talents and 100 managers from 33 companies, each of which has its own well-developed TM program. At least 25 correctly and completely completed questionnaires were obtained in each of the examined organizations - 22 filled out by talented employees and 3 filled out by managers.

Of the managers, 63% were male and 37% were female. Their average age was 40.18 (SD = 6.58), ranging from 29 to 55 years, with an average of 7.01 years (SD = 5.15) of job tenure and 10.44 years (SD = 4.79) of organizational tenure. Their average work experience was 16.04 years (SD = 6.50). The majority of them (93%) had obtained a Bachelor's or Master's degree, and 7% held a secondary school diploma. Almost all managers (99%) in my sample were full-time employees.

Of the participants of TM programs, 45.6% were male and 54.4% were female. Their average age was 29.76 (SD = 3.41), ranging from 23 to 37 years. The average job tenure and organizational tenure of these employees were 4.06 (SD = 2.19) and 5.59 years (SD = 2.60), respectively. They had a mean work experience of 5.93 years (SD = 2.95). In terms of education, about two-thirds of them (69.4%) had a Bachelor's or Master's degree, and one-third (30.7%) were secondary school graduates. 93.4% of surveyed talents worked full time. Participants represented a wide range of industries such as: finance services, insurance, consulting, IT, telecommunications, retail, foodservice and others.

Following Tatoglu et al. (2016), I measured TM practices through a total of twenty TM practices identified by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2011), which serves as a reference for operationalizing TM in empirical studies (e.g. Sonnenberg, van Zijderveld, & Brinks, 2014; Mensah & Bawole, 2018; Mensah, 2019). Managers were asked to indicate the extent of use of each of the listed TM practices for career development of talented employees in their company. Responses were given on a 5-point Likert-type scale in which 1 corresponds to “never used” and 5 to “used very extensively.” Among the practices included in the scale were coaching, mentoring, job rotation and external secondments. The scale had good reliability (Cronbach alpha 0.89).

To measure OCB, the scale of Williams and Anderson (1991) was adopted. It allows for evaluating two dimensions of citizenship behavior identified by the aforementioned authors, i.e. OCBI and OCBO. I asked participants of TM programs to report the degree to which the items described their own behaviors. All items were rated on a seven-point Likert scale where 1 is for “strongly disagree” and 7 is for “strongly agree.” The sample items are: “I assist supervisor with his/her work when not asked,” “I go out of way to help new employees.” The scale demonstrated good reliability (Cronbach's alpha 0.91).

Perceived organizational support was measured with the use of the shortened version of Survey of Perceived Organizational Support (SPOS) provided by Eisenberger et al. (2001). The SPOS is a one-dimensional scale rooted in the organizational support theory (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchinson, & Sowa, 1986). Talent pool members were asked to report on a seven-point Likert scale the extent to which they agree with statements, such as: “the company really cares about my well-being”, “the company strongly considers my goals and values”. The scale had good reliability (Cronbach's alpha 0.91).

Following Fornell and Larcker (1981), I tested the convergent and discriminant validity of the measures. The average variance extracted (AVE) from my independent and dependent variables was close to or over 0.5, supporting convergent validity. Discriminant validity was also supported because the AVEs are higher than the squared correlations among these constructs.

I attempted to control and dampen, if not totally eliminate, the potential effect of common method bias through the procedural and statistical remedies, as recommended by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003). When designing the study, I decided to collect the measures of the predictors and criterion variables from different sources. Managers were asked about the extent of use of TM practices in their company, while the participants of TM programs were asked about beliefs concerning how much the organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being, as well as about the level of their citizenship behavior. This effort diminishes the effects of consistency motifs, implicit theories and social desirability tendencies, because it makes it impossible for the mindset of a common rater to bias the predictor-criterion relationship (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2012). I also assured my respondents that their responses would be anonymous and used only for research purposes. The latter was to reduce participants' appraisal anxiety and make them less likely to adjust their responses to be more socially desirable and consistent with how they think researchers want them to respond.

After data collection, I conducted the post-hoc test using the common latent factor method to check whether the common method variance (CMV) might have biased the results of the investigations. The differences between the values of the standardized regression weights for the model with and without the latent factor were calculated. If such a difference is higher than 0.2, the CMV could affect the results (Afthanorhan et al., 2021). In my case, all differences were below 0.2, which confirmed the absence of method bias.

I started my analyses by calculating descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients between the variables. The results of descriptive and correlations analyses are presented in Table 1.

Correlation coefficients showed strong relationships between TM practices, POS and OCB. Almost all of the analyzed inter-correlations among focal variables proved to be statistically significant at the level of p < 0.001 and are positive. The only exception is OCBI, which is not correlated with TM practices. Significant correlation coefficients raise a question about the possibility of multicollinearity. I have controlled for this threat by analyzing the variance inflation factor (VIF). A VIF greater than 5 would indicate overly high collinearity, and, consequently, a potential collinearity problem. The VIF value for employees' work experience was greater than 5, so I excluded this variable from further analyses. Apart from this, the highest reported VIF (around 2.4) was observed for job tenure. This value is, however, within the acceptable range.

The values of correlation coefficients may be artificially overestimated due to the existence of an apparent correlation and distortions in the research process (e.g. common method bias). Therefore, to test my hypotheses, I conducted multilevel structural equation modeling (SEM) using Stata software's GSEM module, as the employees in my study were nested within companies. When a dataset is multilevel, ordinary least squares regression may lead to an overestimation of the parameters (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002). Applying multilevel modeling helps to avoid biased standard errors and incorrect estimates (Peterson, Arregle, & Martin, 2012).

Before hypotheses testing, I ran null models with no covariates but POS, OCBI and OCBO as the dependent variables in order to ascertain whether I should proceed with multilevel modeling. The intra-class correlation coefficients' (ICCs) for the dependent variables indicate statistically significant organizational-level variation. The ICCs were 0.417 for POS, 0.262 for OCBI and 0.619 for OCBO, indicating that 41.7% of the variance in POS, 26.2% of the variance in OCBI and 61.9% of the variance in OCBO is explained by the fact that respondents worked for different companies. These results supported the appropriateness of multilevel analyses.

Prior to modelling, all predictors except dummy variables were mean centered, according to the recommendations of Enders and Tofighi (2007). Specifically, I used group mean centering for individual-level predictors, and grand mean centering for level 2 predictors to ease interpretation of results. In my analyses, control variables were included in order to test their impact on the results obtained. The results of SEM analysis are presented in Figure 2.

Structural equation modeling revealed that TM practices are a significant predictor of POS (b = 0.479, p < 0.01), but are not directly related to individual- and organization-directed OCB (b = −0.161, n.s.; b = 0.230, n.s., respectively). These findings support hypothesis H2, but do not provide evidence for a direct relationship between TM and either dimension of OCB. This means that talent pool members working for companies that extensively manage their talents perceive high levels of organizational support. TM practices often involve opportunities for professional development and career advancement. These opportunities signal to employees that their employer is investing in their growth, making them feel valued and supported (Gelens et al., 2014), which enhances their perception of organizational support. However, although TM practices appear beneficial in strengthening POS, they do not automatically translate into citizenship behaviors directed toward individuals or the organization.

It was also established that POS significantly predicts OCBI and OCBO (b = 0.324, p < 0.001 for OCBI and b = 0.185, p < 0.001 for OCBO). Thus, hypotheses H3a and H3b are confirmed. When employees perceive that their employer supports their growth and cares about their well-being, they are more likely to contribute positively to the organization. This heightened motivation often translates into OCB, as employees seek to reciprocate the support they receive by contributing extra effort (Kuvaas & Dysvik, 2010).

To test the possible mediating role of POS, I compared the direct and indirect effects of TM practices on the citizenship behavior of talent pool members. The direct effect of TM practices on OCBI has a coefficient of −0.161 and was not significant, while the indirect effect via POS is at the level of 0.155 (p < 0.01). Similarly, the direct effect of TM practices on OCBO is at the level of 0.230 and nonsignificant, while the indirect effect via POS is at the level of 0.089 (p < 0.01). These results demonstrate that POS fully mediates the relationship between TM practices and both dimensions of OCB. The results obtained confirm hypotheses H4a and H4b. These findings suggest that TM practices influence OCB primarily through their effect on POS rather than directly. In other words, TM practices initially influence employees' perceptions of how much support they receive from their employer. When employees perceive these practices as indicative of the organizational support, this perception enhances their overall POS. Higher POS, in turn, fosters a greater willingness to engage in OCB, such as helping colleagues or going beyond job requirements. Thus, the effect of TM practices on citizenship behavior appears to operate mainly through employees' perceptions of organizational support.

Finally, I verified the possible moderating effects of age-related differences among talent pool members by including interactions between POS and age in the model. The results of SEM showed that age and the interaction between POS and age have a statistically significant effect on OCBI (b = −0.091, p < 0.05; b = 0.019, p < 0.05, respectively). However, they are not significantly related to OCBO (b = −0.032, n.s.; b = 0.008, n.s., respectively). This means that age moderates the relationship between POS and OCBI, but not the relationship between POS and OCBO.

A simple slope test (Dawson, 2014) indicated that the relationship between POS and OCBI is stronger for older employees than for their younger counterparts. The interaction effect and the results of the simple slope tests are visualized in Figure 3. Since the moderating effect of age in the relationship between POS and OCBI was in the opposite direction to that expected, hypothesis H5a had to be rejected. Hypothesis H5b had to be rejected as well due to the insignificance of the results. The finding that older employees are more inclined to actively support their co-workers may be explained by their greater work experience and emotional maturity, which can help them better understand and appreciate the value of support from their organization (Savio, 2022). When they perceive this support, they are more likely to reciprocate with behaviors that benefit their colleagues, such as offering help or guidance.

By contrast, the effect of POS on OCBO appears to be relatively similar across age groups. This suggests that age does not substantially change the way talent pool members translate POS into citizenship behaviors directed toward the organization as a whole. Unlike OCBI, which involves direct support for specific colleagues, OCBO refers to behaviors oriented toward the broader organization, such as following organizational rules, showing loyalty or supporting general organizational functioning. Therefore, organization-directed citizenship behavior may be less dependent on age-related interpersonal experience and more closely connected with general organizational expectations or a sense of responsibility toward the employer.

Looking at the influence of the control variables on citizenship behavior, it is noteworthy that talent pool members' gender, education level, job tenure, organizational tenure, work status and the origin of company capital did not have a significant effect on either OCB dimension. However, company age had a negative effect on OCBI (b = −0.006, p < 0.05), and company size was found to negatively influence OCBO (b = −0.151, p < 0.05).

Previous research has generally linked TM with OCB and other desirable employee outcomes; however, the psychological mechanism underlying these relationships remains insufficiently explained. Earlier studies have shown that TM may foster OCB, job satisfaction, work engagement and organizational commitment (Mensah & Bawole, 2018; Mensah, 2019; Kuntonbutr & Sangperm, 2019; Wikhamn et al., 2021). The present study refines this line of research by demonstrating that TM practices do not directly predict either individual-directed or organization-directed OCB. Instead, their influence operates through POS. This indicates that TM practices are likely to stimulate citizenship behavior only when talent pool members interpret them as a signal that the organization values their contribution and cares about their development and well-being.

This result is consistent with social exchange theory and organizational support theory. From this perspective, employees are more likely to reciprocate favorable treatment when they perceive that the organization supports them and invests in their growth. The findings therefore support previous research showing that POS is an important antecedent of OCB (Chiang & Hsieh, 2012; Alshaabani et al., 2021), while extending this literature to the context of managing talents. In particular, the results suggest that TM practices do not automatically generate extra-role behavior; rather, they first need to be experienced as supportive. This may explain why some TM systems produce positive employee reactions, whereas others may fail to activate the expected behavioral outcomes.

The age-related findings partly challenge the assumptions derived from the literature on reciprocity norms. Although previous research suggests that the tendency to reciprocate received benefits may be stronger among younger individuals and decline with age (Perugini et al., 2003), the present study showed that POS was more strongly associated with OCBI among older talent pool members. However, this finding is consistent with another stream of research indicating that older employees may be more likely to engage in OCB and other positive work behaviors. For example, meta-analytic evidence suggests a small positive relationship between age and OCB, indicating that older employees tend to display somewhat higher levels of citizenship behavior than younger employees (Ng & Feldman, 2008; Pletzer, 2021). This suggests that older employees may not be less willing to reciprocate organizational support; rather, they may express reciprocity more through interpersonal helping behaviors.

This interpretation may also be supported by socioemotional selectivity theory (Carstensen et al., 1999), according to which individuals increasingly prioritize emotionally meaningful goals and social relationships when their perceived future time becomes more limited (Carstensen, 2021). Applied to the workplace, this perspective suggests that older employees may attach greater importance to maintaining positive interpersonal relations and contributing to a supportive social environment at work. Therefore, the stronger POS–OCBI relationship among older talent pool members may indicate that they are particularly likely to express reciprocity through interpersonal forms of OCB when they perceive that the organization values and supports them.

This explanation is also consistent with research on age and work-related motives. Kooij, de Lange, Jansen, Kanfer, and Dikkers (2011) found that age is associated with changes in work motives, including a stronger emphasis on social and emotionally meaningful aspects of work. Recent evidence also indicates that older workers may report stronger motivation to help colleagues through assisting, training or sharing experience (Doerwald, Zacher, Van Yperen, & Scheibe, 2021). Taken together, these findings support the interpretation that older employees may transform POS into interpersonal citizenship behavior because they possess greater work experience, accumulated social knowledge and a stronger orientation toward meaningful workplace relationships.

The absence of age moderation in the POS–OCBO relationship can be interpreted through the distinction between individual- and organization-directed citizenship behavior. While OCBI is directed toward specific colleagues and may therefore be more sensitive to age-related socio-emotional motives, OCBO benefits the organization as a whole and may be more strongly embedded in general organizational norms, loyalty and expectations of responsible membership (Fan, Wider, & Chan, 2023; Santos, Viseu, de Jesus, & de Almeida, 2023). This interpretation is consistent with Bolino et al.’s (2002) argument that OCB contributes to organizational social capital by supporting cooperation, reliability and coordinated action. Thus, younger and older employees may respond to POS in a similar way when citizenship behavior is directed toward the organization, whereas age-related differences become more visible when POS is translated into interpersonal helping behaviors.

My study contributes to the recent debates on TM by offering additional empirical evidence on the relationship between TM practices, POS and citizenship behavior among talent pool members. First, it expands the discussion on employee reactions to TM by examining whether and how TM practices are associated with individual- and organization-directed OCB. The findings suggest that TM practices are not directly related to OCBI and OCBO, but that their relationship with both forms of citizenship behavior operates indirectly through POS. In this sense, POS appears to function as a relational mechanism through which TM practices are translated into citizenship behavior: when talent pool members perceive these practices as expressions of organizational support, they may become more willing to reciprocate through behaviors that go beyond their formal job requirements.

Second, the study responds to calls for a better understanding of the processes through which TM may influence employee outcomes (Hendrawan et al., 2024). The results do not point to a direct effect of TM practices on individual- and organization-directed OCB; rather, they indicate that employees' perceptions of organizational support play an important role in linking TM practices with both forms of citizenship behavior. This finding is consistent with the social exchange perspective, as it shows that TM practices may encourage citizenship behavior when employees experience them as signals that the organization values their contribution and supports their development. Furthermore, the study provides preliminary evidence that age may condition the relationship between POS and individual-directed OCB, suggesting that talent pool members' reactions to organizational support may vary across age groups. In particular, the stronger POS–OCBI relationship observed among older employees may suggest that organizational support is especially important for encouraging them to engage in citizenship behaviors directed toward colleagues.

Third, the study adds to the literature by applying a multilevel analytical approach, which takes into account the nesting of employees within organizations. Given that the data were collected from talent pool members and managers across 33 companies, this approach allowed relationships between variables measured at different levels of analysis to be examined more appropriately. In doing so, the study responds to the need for research designs that better reflect the multilevel nature of TM practices and employee reactions.

Fourth, the study provides empirical evidence from the Polish context. As research on TM has been conducted predominantly in Western and Anglo-Saxon settings, evidence from Central and Eastern Europe may help broaden the contextual basis of TM research. However, the findings should be interpreted with caution, as they are based on a sample of large companies operating in Poland and may not be directly generalizable to other institutional or cultural contexts.

The study also offers implications for the broader organizational behavior literature, particularly research on POS and OCB. By showing that POS is positively associated with both individual- and organization-directed OCB among talent pool members, the findings provide additional evidence on the role of POS in shaping employees' extra-role behaviors. From a practical perspective, the findings may be useful for organizational decision-makers responsible for TM initiatives. They suggest that investments in TM practices alone may not be sufficient to foster citizenship behavior unless these practices are perceived by employees as supportive. Therefore, managers should pay attention not only to the design of TM programs, but also to how these programs are communicated, implemented and experienced by talent pool members.

The theoretical contributions described above give rise to certain implications for business practice. The findings suggest that TM should not be viewed merely as a set of selective HR practices aimed at identifying, developing or retaining high-potential employees. Rather, when TM practices are interpreted by employees as a genuine expression of organizational support, they may contribute to the development of a more cooperative and supportive workplace culture.

From a managerial perspective, the central implication is that organizations should focus on strengthening talent pool members' POS. Since TM practices did not directly predict either individual- or organization-directed OCB, their effectiveness depends less on the mere existence of formal practices and more on how these practices are experienced by employees. Managers should therefore pay close attention to whether TM practices are perceived as supportive, fair, transparent and development-oriented. This requires consistent communication, developmental feedback, visible concern for employee well-being and regular monitoring of employee perceptions.

These findings are particularly important because TM may generate ambivalent social reactions in the workplace. On the one hand, it can signal recognition, investment and developmental support. On the other hand, if poorly communicated or perceived as elitist, it may raise concerns about inequality, exclusion or preferential treatment among employees (O'Connor & Crowley-Henry, 2019). Transparent criteria for talent identification, fair access to development opportunities and regular feedback may reduce the risk that TM is interpreted as a privilege reserved for a narrow group of employees. Such actions may help organizations transform TM from a potentially divisive HR practice into a source of support, cooperation and social cohesion.

The results also have implications for employee well-being. TM systems that strengthen POS may contribute to employees' sense of belonging, psychological safety and perceived recognition. Conversely, TM systems focused narrowly on performance, competition and high expectations may increase pressure and undermine the supportive meaning of talent designation. Organizations should therefore ensure that talent programs include not only challenging assignments and career opportunities, but also mentoring, feedback, supervisor support and attention to workload and stress. In this way, TM can contribute not only to organizational effectiveness, but also to a healthier and more supportive social environment at work.

The age-related findings further enrich these implications. The stronger relationship between POS and individual-directed citizenship behavior among older employees suggests that they may play a particularly important role in creating supportive interpersonal climates. When older employees feel supported by the organization, they may be especially inclined to help colleagues, share knowledge, mentor less experienced employees and strengthen everyday cooperation. This finding challenges the stereotypical assumption that TM should focus primarily on younger employees or early-career high potentials. Instead, it highlights the importance of age-inclusive TM practices that recognize the contribution of employees at different career stages. In practical terms, organizations may benefit from incorporating older talent pool members into mentoring schemes, knowledge-sharing initiatives, intergenerational project teams and peer-support activities.

Finally, the study may also inform organizational policies and management education. At the organizational level, the results suggest that TM should be evaluated not only through individual performance, promotion rates or retention indicators, but also through social and relational outcomes, such as organizational support, cooperation, trust, employee well-being and citizenship behavior. HR departments may therefore consider including POS- and OCB-related indicators in employee surveys, leadership assessments and evaluations of talent programs. At the educational level, the findings underline the importance of preparing future managers to design TM systems that are transparent, inclusive and sensitive to employees' perceptions. Management education and leadership development programs should emphasize that TM is not only a technical HR process, but also a social practice that shapes how employees perceive fairness, support, recognition and responsibility toward others.

Like other studies, my study has some limitations that provide opportunities for future research. First, all the data for this study were gathered at a single point in time, raising concerns about common method bias. Although I adopted the procedural remedies mentioned in the Method section, I could not exclude the possibility that CMV existed. However, the post-hoc test indicated that CMV is not a threat to my results. Future research would benefit from assessing OCB of talent pool members before they are included in a TM program and afterward. Second, while I proposed theoretical arguments for a particular causal direction, my study had a cross-sectional design. There is thus a possibility for reverse causality such that individuals who are seen to exhibit behaviors examined in the study are more likely than others to be included in talent pools. Longitudinal research is needed to examine the nature of causality within relationships analyzed in the study. Third, although all examined organizations had well-developed TM programs, there are a number of potential sources of exogenous variation that may influence employee reactions to TM, including different business strategies, company policies and the specific nature of the organization's HRM as well as leadership styles of supervisors. It was beyond the scope of the present study to investigate such factors, but this would be an interesting direction of future research. In addition, further studies could focus on OCBs of employees who are nested in various sectors or cultures to investigate whether or not there are contextual limitations to the generalizability of the results. It would be interesting, although very challenging, to conduct comparative studies at an international level.

The effect of TM on OCB has been supported by previous research; however, the process through which TM practices can foster employees' citizenship behaviors is still not very well known. Therefore, the study examined the relationship between TM practices and both OCBI and OCBO of talent pool members, and the mediating role of POS thereon. It also explored how this relationship is influenced by age-related differences, testing their moderating effects. In order to substantiate the hypothesized relations, social exchange theory and generational theory were specifically applied to the work context, together with insights on employee reactions to TM. Younger people were expected to need the norm of reciprocity to be triggered by POS more than older individuals in order to feel obligated to reciprocate with OCB. In sum, the research findings showed that TM practices do not directly affect the OCBI and OCBO of talent pool members but rather exert an indirect influence through POS. Furthermore, the study revealed that older employees tend to exhibit more OCBI due to the perception of organizational support than their younger counterparts.