Working and staying in retail: how working conditions shape industry loyalty in the war for talent

At around 60.5%, the turnover rate in retail and wholesale is the highest across service industries (Team Stage, 2024). Workforce shortage, the war for talent with other industries and lack of employee loyalty are major issues the retail sector faces (Karkkainen, 2024). A key problem is the shortage of employees, especially of qualified staff (Fuller et al., 2022). Due to poor working conditions, inflexible hours, stress, customer deviance, limited career prospects and low salaries, retail has a rather negative reputation as an employer (Waldman, 2024; Mayr and Teller, 2023). Consequently, employee loyalty is comparatively low (Sainato, 2024). However, loyal employees are essential, as they provide stability, reduce labour shortages and improve customer interactions, which is crucial for sales performance (Otto et al., 2020). To address these challenges and ensure employee loyalty within the retail sector, it is essential to create attractive working conditions across the whole industry.

Research on employee loyalty and employer attractiveness is extensive, with numerous studies examining antecedents (Nilsen et al., 2026) and consequences (Benraïss-Noailles and Viot, 2021). However, despite the wealth of research in broader contexts, there is a notable research gap in studies specifically addressing these issues within the retail sector (Chandra et al., 2023). Furthermore, most existing research examines loyalty and retention in relation to a specific employer. Only a few studies examine loyalty and retention at the industry level rather than at the organisational level (Davies et al., 2025). We conceptualise the industry level as a group of companies primarily engaged in B2C trade. Such a perspective is essential for understanding employee loyalty in an environment shaped by inter-industry competition and evolving skill demands.

This study contributes towards closing these research gaps and aims at examining the factors influencing employees’ retention intentions and loyalty to the retail industry. Therefore, we address the following research question: Which retail-specific working conditions shape employees’ intention to stay and their loyalty to the retail industry? By shifting the focus from the organisational to the industry level, it offers three main contributions. First, it provides one of the earliest industry-wide perspectives on employee loyalty in retail, second, it identifies retail-specific working conditions shaping retention and loyalty and third, it highlights how personal- and work-related factors moderate these relationships, thereby adding a new layer to existing research on long-term retention and competitive advantages in the industry.

The findings indicate that retail conditions such as salary, growth, task, team, work-life balance and customer interactions influence employee loyalty towards the industry, with differences regarding retention intentions. Further, the results demonstrate the impact of personal- and work-related moderators.

Practically, we contribute clear guidance for improving employee retention in retail. The industry should strengthen its working conditions while considering individual needs. Tailored strategies reflecting different employee profiles can enhance retention and loyalty. This can reduce turnover, lower staffing costs, improve internal stability and make the sector more attractive, while strengthening retail’s position in the competition for talent across industries.

Berthon et al. (2005) suggest that employer attractiveness is strongly linked to working conditions. Furthermore, job characteristics affect employee retentions in retail (Masters et al., 2025). Research identifies key factors including culture and values (Machova et al., 2022), workplace environment (Kearney et al., 2023), tasks (Ek Styvén et al., 2022), teamwork and leadership (Chandra et al., 2023; Park et al., 2021), career development opportunities (Nilsen et al., 2026), work-life balance (Tanwar and Prasad, 2017), image and reputation (Davies et al., 2025), salary (Davies et al., 2025) and customer interactions (Mayr and Teller, 2024). Building on these factors and drawing on the grouping logic of Aboul-Ela (2016), the identified aspects are re-aggregated into four dimensions of retail working conditions: work-life balance, task and team, salary and growth and customer interactions. Employee-based brand equity benefits organisations, as employees aligned with the brand show greater retention (King and Grace, 2010), while emotional brand identification enhances customer interactions and performance (Boukis and Christodoulides, 2020). Closely related to employer attractiveness and a consequence thereof are employee retention and loyalty. Retention refers to the intention to remain with an organisation (Singh, 2019), while loyalty implies a deeper emotional commitment and identification (Allen and Meyer, 1990), including the willingness to stay long-term (Schrag, 2001). Table A1 summarises an overview of the literature discussed here.

Despite widespread interest in employer attractiveness, retention and loyalty, retail-specific research remains limited (research gap 1). Most studies examine these concepts in organisational contexts, while retail-specific insights are scarce (Messini, 2022). This is notable given retail’s challenging working conditions, including customer interactions (Mayr and Teller, 2024), low salaries, limited career opportunities (Hosie et al., 2013) and inflexible working hours (Henly and Lambert, 2014). These sector-specific conditions make it crucial to examine their impact on retention and loyalty in retail.

Many studies focus on retention and loyalty toward individual employers rather than the industry (Gelencsér et al., 2025), although industry-level loyalty may be crucial for long-term workforce stability (research gap 2). Burmann et al. (2008) examine industry image’s effect on employer image but omit working conditions and retention outside retail. Davies et al. (2025) focus on industry image and recruitment, excluding retention and working conditions, also beyond retail. Foster et al. (2008) appears to be the only retail-focused study that differentiates between loyalty to the store, the retailer and the industry, yet does not consider retail-specific working conditions. By integrating retail-specific working conditions into the analysis of employee retention and industry loyalty, this study advances existing literature.

Previous research emphasises personal and job-related factors in explaining retention and loyalty. Employee loyalty tends to increase with age (Murali et al., 2017) and full-time employees show stronger involvement and turnover intentions, whereas part-time workers report higher satisfaction due to flexibility and lower emotional investment (Doğan Al and Anıl, 2016). In retail, work experience and satisfaction also influence retention (Knight et al., 2006). However, integrating personal and work-related moderators in retail studies remains limited (research gap 3).

Against this backdrop, this study examines which retail-specific working conditions shape employees’ retention intentions and industry loyalty. Given limited research on industry-level loyalty in retail, this study takes an exploratory approach. By adopting an industry-level perspective and incorporating personal- and work-related moderators, it offers a differentiated contribution to research on employee loyalty in retail.

The job embeddedness theory (Mitchell et al., 2001) explains why employees stay through three components: links (social connections), fit (compatibility between personal values and job) and sacrifice (perceived losses if leaving). These elements account for retention despite dissatisfaction or alternatives (Holtom and Darabi, 2018). The theory has been widely applied, showing links, fit and sacrifice influence turnover intentions in hospitality (Obeng et al., 2024) and retail pharmacy (Leupold et al., 2013). Career development, job security, leadership (Peltokorpi and Allen, 2024), sector stability and reputation (Burrows et al., 2022) are key drivers of embeddedness. In this study, these components are used to structure retail working conditions: fit relates to work-life balance and tasks, links refer to team and customer relationships and sacrifice is connected to salary and growth opportunities. Retail employees and managers are often embedded in broader service networks through interactions with customers, colleagues and retail ecosystems, reinforcing organisational and sectoral attachment (Alexander et al., 2016). The broader model, including factors outside the workplace, is not considered, as the focus lies on industry-level attachment. Therefore, the job embeddedness theory provides a framework to examine how retail-specific working conditions shape employees’ intention to stay and industry loyalty.

The social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) states that people define themselves through group membership, fostering belonging and loyalty, with organisational and occupational identification closely linked (Ashforth and Mael, 1989). Strong brand love increases employee loyalty and positive word-of-mouth (Wang and Omar, 2023), and subsequently reduces turnover and strengthens commitment (Avanzi et al., 2014). We focus on industry-level identification, reflected in employees’ sense of belonging and attachment to the retail sector. Organisational identification and identity formation processes are not examined in detail, as the theory is used to explain how perceived belonging translates into loyalty beyond individual employers. Therefore, his theory supports examining retail industry loyalty by showing how identification and belonging help retain employees beyond individual employers.

The spillover concept (Staines, 1980) suggests that attitudes and intentions formed in one domain transfer to related domains. For instance, entrepreneurial knowledge acquired at universities positively influences regional startup formation (Audretsch and Lehmann, 2005). Different types of engagement, such as job engagement, are interconnected and influence retail store performance (Suhartanto and Brien, 2018). We apply the concept to examine how organisational-level experiences transfer to industry-level attitudes, particularly retail industry retention and loyalty. Different forms or directions of spillover are not differentiated, as the focus lies on the transfer from organisational experiences to sectoral commitment. This concept highlights how experiences and feelings in one area can affect others, supporting its application to explore employee loyalty beyond the organisational level to the retail industry.

Previous research identifies working conditions as key factors in employee retention within organisations (Singh, 2019). This study extends the analysis to the industry level by examining how retail-specific working conditions influence frontline employees’ intention to stay with their employer, remain in retail and maintain industry loyalty. Furthermore, the model analyses how personal and work-related moderators shape these relationships. Figure 1 depicts the proposed research model.

Retail working conditions capture key aspects of frontline employees’ work environment, reflected in the four dimensions work-life balance, task and team, salary and growth and customers (Aboul-Ela, 2016), measured through employee satisfaction. Employee intention to stay refers to retention intentions toward the current organisation or industry (Mowday et al., 1979), while industry loyalty reflects broader affective attachment and long-term commitment to the industry (Allen and Meyer, 1990). Drawing on job embeddedness theory (Mitchell et al., 2001), favourable evaluations of these dimensions increase employees’ embeddedness, making them likelier to remain with their employer and within the industry, thereby strengthening industry loyalty. Research shows that favourable working conditions reduce turnover intentions and enhance retention. Nguyen et al. (2023) demonstrate that job embeddedness is negatively associated with turnover intentions. Similarly, work environment, pay, career opportunities, rewards and intrinsic motivation drive retention and loyalty (Wularsih and Octafian, 2024). Thus, we propose:

Based on the spillover concept (Staines, 1980), positive experiences in an organisation not only reflect satisfaction with that company but also shape general views of the sector. Affective organisational commitment links to stronger professional attachment (Meyer et al., 1993) and positive organisational experiences increase retention intentions and loyalty (Blau, 2001). Although loyalty toward employer and industry share similarities, differences exist (Foster et al., 2008). Therefore, we conclude that:

According to social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979), intention to stay in an industry is linked to commitment and identification with that sector, reflecting deeper social and emotional connections. Meyer et al. (1993) found that intentions to remain are associated with strong commitment. Moreover, organisational commitment relates positively to retention (Allen et al., 2010) and retention is closely connected to loyalty (Costen and Salazar, 2011). Therefore, we conclude:

In line with job embeddedness theory (Mitchell et al., 2001), employee loyalty is shaped by multiple factors, with working conditions playing a central role. Retail working conditions affect retention and loyalty (Wularsih and Octafian, 2024), both toward the employer and the industry (Foster et al., 2008). Research shows that intention to stay mediates the relationship between working conditions and employee outcomes, including retention and loyalty (Kearney et al., 2023). Hence, we assume a mediating effect:

Personal- and work-related resources play a moderating role in human resources research. In particular, gender, age, working hours and work experience may shape employees’ responses to retail working conditions. Prior research highlights the moderating role of gender (Francioni et al., 2022) and work experience (Gupta and Shaheen, 2017). Older employees tend to show higher loyalty than younger ones (Murali et al., 2017), while women generally report greater loyalty than men (Foster et al., 2008). Similarly, more experienced employees are likelier to form long-term attachments to the sector (Knight et al., 2006), whereas full-time employees often show stronger emotional involvement and part-time employees report higher satisfaction due to flexibility (Doğan Al and Anıl, 2016). Therefore, this study examines whether these personal- and work-related factors moderate the relationships between retail working conditions, retention intentions and industry loyalty.

For data collection, representative data from Austria, reflecting the characteristics of mature Central European retail labour markets, were used. This market reflects key structural characteristics typical of mature Western retail economies, including increasing online penetration, strong concentration and consolidation tendencies, and service-intensive store operations (Gittenberger and Teller, 2025) Such conditions mirror the institutional and operational environment of many developed retail sectors, supporting the broader relevance of the findings. The population comprised frontline retail employees across major retail segments. The sample reflects key demographic and job-related characteristics of the retail workforce, stratified by age, gender, and sector. Data were collected via a web-based survey. The sample (n = 1,006) includes frontline retail employees aged 16+ with at least six months in retail, in various positions (store or department manager, salesperson, cashier, shelf supervisor, apprentice). Before we fully launched the survey, we pretested the same to reveal any inaccuracies. The average response time was 17 min. Only fully completed questionnaires that passed the attention check were retained. Of the 1,049 completed surveys, 38 were excluded due to failed attention checks and five due to monotonous response patterns, resulting in finally 1,006 respondents. The sample comprised 73.8% female, 25.9% male and 0.3% diverse participants, mostly aged 25–64 (15.1–20.8% per age group). Salespersons formed the largest occupational group (48.1%). Full demographics are provided in Table A2.

Constructs were measured based on established scales, which were adapted where necessary, with all items rated on 6-point Likert scales. Retail working conditions (Aboul-Ela, 2016) were operationalised as a multidimensional construct reflecting four retail-specific dimensions identified in the conceptual framework. Items were adapted to the retail context and aggregated based on exploratory factor analysis and verbal validation among the researchers (Watkins, 2018). The EFA aimed to reduce items where necessary, explore the underlying structure among variables, assess construct unidimensionality and detect potential multicollinearity among latent variables (Yong and Pearce, 2013). We conducted the EFA using principal component analysis (Yong and Pearce, 2013) and evaluated assumptions with Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p < 0.001) and the KMO measure of sampling adequacy (KMO >0.80). Communalities after varimax rotation were examined (communalities >0.50) and factor loadings for each construct were assessed (loadings >0.50). Only items without cross-loadings and falling within the threshold values were retained. Following the EFA, the research team discussed item reduction decisions and assessed the reliability of the scale. Both employee intention to stay constructs were measured using Du Preez and Bendixen’s (2015) scale as a common basis, with the items applied either at the organisational or industry level. For reasons of face validity and consistency with the study context, the two reverse-coded items of the original four-item scale were excluded. Industry loyalty was assessed via a scale adapted from Homburg and Stock (2000). Measures finally used in the model are provided in Table A3.

As a self-administered, web-based survey was used, the risk of common method bias (CMB) was considered, as it can compromise the validity of findings through systematic error and data distortion (Richardson et al., 2009). We implemented several measures to control CMB effects, including an unrelated marker variable and testing its correspondences with other constructs (Kock et al., 2021).

To reduce common method bias, the questionnaire design followed established best practices (MacKenzie and Podsakoff, 2012; Richardson et al., 2009). Dependent and independent variables were separated, with the dependent variables presented first. Anonymity and confidentiality help mitigate social desirability effects, while balanced item order reduces proximity bias (Weijters et al., 2009). Ambiguity, complex wording and double-barrelled questions were avoided and all measures were adapted from validated scales. Data quality was further ensured through attention checks and a pre-test.

To assess potential common method bias, Harman’s single-factor test (Harman, 1976) was applied through an unrotated exploratory factor analysis with all items loaded onto a single latent factor. The first factor explained 48.60% of total variance, below the commonly cited 50% threshold (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986). Since the first factor’s variance did not exceed this limit, CMB is not considered a major concern. Correlations between the marker variable and the other constructs were insignificant (p > 0.05).

We control for job profile, location and firm size. Job profiles differ in responsibility, autonomy and career prospects, affecting turnover attitudes (Mbane and Ezeuduji, 2016). Location matters due to commuting, mobility and local job alternatives, with rural areas facing greater retention challenges (Slagle, 2013). Firm size can shape human resource practices, support and development, with smaller firms fostering closeness and larger ones offering structured systems (Gelencsér et al., 2025).

To evaluate the proposed research model, variance-based SEM was applied, as it is particularly suitable for analysing and predicting complex relations in multifaceted models (Hair et al., 2021). This approach treats latent constructs as weighted composites of their indicators (Cho and Choi, 2020) and assesses the magnitude and direction of structural paths using significance tests (Tenenhaus et al., 2005).

Following established methodological practices (Hair et al., 2021), the measurement model was evaluated for convergent and discriminant validity. Confirmatory composite analysis indicated that all factor loadings were highly significant (p < 0.001) and above the 0.70 threshold (Hulland, 1999). Composite reliability (CR) values exceeded the 0.70 threshold for all multi-item constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981), confirming internal consistency. For the initial four-item intention to stay scale, reliability values did not meet the required threshold, indicating insufficient measurement quality, which necessitated scale reduction. To ensure discriminant validity, we removed cross-loading items for intention to stay, resulting in single-item measures for both retention constructs, see Table A3. As intention to stay is a direct attitudinal construct, single-item measures are consistent with prior research (Cho et al., 2009). Average variance extracted (AVE) surpassed 0.50 (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988), supporting convergent validity. Discriminant validity was confirmed for all items by comparing the squared AVE values with the correlations (Fornell and Larcker, 1981) and through the heterotrait-monotrait test (HTMT), in which all variables fell below the 0.90 threshold, as can be seen in Table 1.

To test model robustness, the direct effects of control variables on the main endogenous constructs were examined (Robson et al., 2008), revealing only one significant effect: firm size on industry loyalty (t = 3.709; p < 0.001). Structural consistency was assessed by estimating the model with and without controls, showing minor changes and confirming that core relationships remain unaffected. Endogeneity was tested via a Gaussian copula approach, with all effects insignificant (p > 0.05) (Becker et al., 2022), indicating a robust model without endogeneity concerns.

The direct effects reveal that the majority of our hypotheses are supported, following bootstrapping with a minimum of 1,000 subsamples (Chin, 1998). Since retail working conditions are modelled as an aggregated construct, this section reports the direct effects of its components work-life balance, task and team, salary and growth and customers. The effect of retail working conditions on the intention to stay with the employer (H1a) is supported for work-life balance (t = 2.398; p < 0.05), task and team (t = 3.284; p < 0.005) and salary and growth (t = 5.986; p < 0.001). Regarding H1b, the effects of task and team (t = 2.328; p < 0.05) and salary and growth (t = 4.593; p < 0.001) are supported. Regarding H1c, significant effects can be confirmed for all four working conditions: work-life balance (t = 3.232; p < 0.005), task and team (t = 2.101; p < 0.05), salary and growth (t = 5.756; p < 0.001) and customers (t = 4.966; p < 0.001). H2a is clearly supported, confirming the effect of intention to stay with the employer on intention to stay in the industry (t = 7.920; p < 0.001). The same applies to H2b, with a significant effect of intention to stay with the employer on industry loyalty (t = 5.712; p < 0.001). H3 is also strongly supported, with a highly significant effect of intention to stay in the industry on industry loyalty (t = 12.920; p < 0.001). Effect sizes are reported in Table A4.

Following Hair et al. (2021), the effect of retail working conditions on industry loyalty is mediated by both intentions to stay for three working conditions. No mediation occurs for customer interactions. Significant support for H4 is found for work-life balance (t = 2.227; p < 0.05), task and team (t = 2.875; p < 0.005) and salary and growth (t = 4.293; p < 0.001).

To establish moderation effects, the analysis applies multi-group analysis (Henseler, 2012). Effects are considered present if the p-value of the path coefficients in the group comparison is smaller than 0.05 or greater than 0.95 (Hair et al., 2021). The results support H5a for work-life balance (Δ = −0.432; p < 0.005) and task and team (Δ = 0.336; p < 0.005). H5b receives support for salary and growth (Δ = 0.355; p < 0.05), while H5c is supported for work-life balance (Δ = −0.359; p < 0.005). Customer interactions provide support for H5d (Δ = 0.003; p > 0.95). In contrast, the analysis does not support H6a. The results support H6b for customer effects (Δ = −0.232; p < 0.05), while support for H6c and H6d emerges for work-life balance (Δ = 0.003; p > 0.95; Δ = 0.199; p < 0.05).

Extending theoretical frameworks: Our study contributes to three theoretical frameworks: job embeddedness theory (Mitchell et al., 2001), social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) and spillover concept (Staines, 1980). For job embeddedness theory, findings show that retail working conditions map onto links, fit and sacrifice, shaping employees’ embeddedness as reflected in their loyalty and intention to stay. This demonstrates that embeddedness mechanisms extend beyond organisational boundaries to industry-level loyalty and retention in retail. For social identity theory, identification with retail fosters belonging and attachment beyond individual employers, strengthening industry-level loyalty. By focussing on industry-level identification, the study extends the theory by highlighting a less examined level of analysis compared to organisational identification and emphasising sector-wide identity rather than organisation-specific identification. Regarding the spillover concept, attitudes and experiences formed at the organisational level transfer to the industry level, influencing broader sectoral commitment. The findings provide evidence for cross-level spillover, demonstrating attitude transfer across organisational and sectoral boundaries in a new context and thereby broadening the concept. This complements prior retail research on boundary-spanning and service-network relationships, which highlights how frontline actors connect organisational and broader retail-system experiences (Alexander et al., 2016).

Focus from organisational-to industry-level loyalty: By shifting the focus from organisational-to industry-level loyalty in retail, this study extends industry-level views. Prior research considers industry-level perspectives in non-retail contexts (Davies et al., 2025), while Foster et al. (2008) analyse industry-level loyalty in retail without incorporating retail-specific working conditions. By linking retail working conditions to both intentions to stay and industry-level loyalty, this study provides a differentiated understanding of how working conditions shape retention and loyalty at both organisational and industry levels. Overall, these contributions highlight the value of an industry-level perspective for understanding career choices, talent competition and evolving skill needs in retail.

Financial and career incentives for retention and loyalty: Salary and growth opportunities remain the strongest predictors of all three working conditions, confirming the central role of financial and career incentives in retail (Masters et al., 2025). Notably, they represent the only factor stabilising employees at both organisational and industry levels simultaneously. Unlike other working conditions that primarily shape attachment or identification, financial and career prospects influence whether retail is perceived as a viable long-term career.

Differences in binding to employer/industry through task and team: Contrasting claims that task variety outweighs salary (Ineson et al., 2013), task and team factors are the second-most important driver of staying with an employer and have a weaker but significant effect on industry loyalty, supporting research on meaningful work and team cohesion (Masters et al., 2025; Ek Styvén et al., 2022). This suggests that task and team factors foster workplace attachment and industry commitment but not long-term sector retention.

Creation of attachment without preventing exit through work-life balance: Work-life balance influences intention to stay with the employer and industry loyalty but not sector retention, similar to task and team factors, likely because it enhances satisfaction and emotional attachment to the current job and sector without affecting broader career or industry exit decisions (Qi et al., 2024).

Occupational identification through customer interactions: Notably, customer interactions do not influence retention intentions but strongly predict industry loyalty. This counterintuitive finding suggests that customer interactions strengthen identification with retail as an occupation rather than with a specific employer (Mayr and Teller, 2023), making them more relevant for industry-level attachment while remaining too ambivalent to directly drive firm-level retention.

Employee characteristics determine how working conditions matter: This study shows that the effects of retail working conditions are moderated by employee characteristics. Work-life balance has stronger effects for full-time and less experienced employees, consistent with findings that full-timers value balance more (Lyonette, 2015) and younger employees struggle more with work-life boundaries (Sturges and Guest, 2006). Customer interactions influence retention for younger employees, while salary and growth drive industry retention, likely due to financial dependence (Lee et al., 2025). Gender-specific patterns reveal that task and team factors affect industry retention more for women (Rogelberg and Rumery, 1996), whereas work-life balance impacts men more, challenging prior assumptions (Pace and Sciotto, 2022). Older employees are more influenced by customer experiences in industry loyalty, suggesting emotional attachment grows with experience. These moderation effects show that personal and job-related factors shape how working conditions translate into retention and loyalty.

This study provides practical insights for the retail sector, including chambers of commerce and labour market institutions. Identifying work conditions that shape retention and industry loyalty can help reduce turnover, stabilise the workforce and address the war for talent in retail.

Salary and career development are critical for retaining employees and building long-term loyalty in retail. Retail should ensure fair pay, clear promotion paths and visible development programs. Meaningful tasks, autonomy and supportive teams with effective leadership strengthen workplace and sector attachment. This can be achieved through clear responsibilities, skill development, collaboration and leadership training. Promoting work-life balance through flexible scheduling and respect for personal time further enhances commitment, well-being, and workforce stability.

Customer interactions strongly influence employees’ loyalty to the retail sector by fostering emotional and professional identification with work. Retail can strengthen this through training for challenging situations, coaching in positive engagement and promoting respectful customer relationships. Recognising and rewarding excellent service can further enhance pride for working in retail, professional identity and long-term sector commitment.

Moderation results highlight the value of personalised approaches. Age-specific interventions, as financial support for younger staff or engagement initiatives for older employees, gender-sensitive policies ensuring fair task distribution and well-being, and flexible work models adapted to hours and experience all enhance loyalty. These strategies help retailers address individual needs, making workplaces more attractive, inclusive and supportive.

Retail should use insights on working conditions, loyalty and retention to anticipate future sector needs. Investing in skills, career development and customer interactions strengthens workforce stability, supports adaptation to technological change and keeps the sector competitive.

This study has several limitations. Its quantitative, cross-sectional design restricts causal inferences and leaves underlying mechanisms unexplored compared to qualitative approaches. Focussing on Western-European retail may not capture insights from other cultural or institutional settings. The rise of online and omnichannel retail adds challenges beyond traditional working conditions, which may also affect industry loyalty. Future research should address these limitations using longitudinal, cross-cultural and mixed-methods designs to gain more nuanced insights into mechanisms shaping retention and industry loyalty.