Beyond the privacy paradox: reimagining data-driven marketing in Ghana’s digital frontier Open Access

Ghana's digital landscape is experiencing rapid growth. Digital technologies are redefining consumer interactions (Ameen, Hosany, & Tarhini, 2021; Singh, Singh, Gulati, Bhasin, & Sreejith, 2022; Yadav & Pavlou, 2020), rendering online platforms crucial to business strategies (Boateng, Boateng, Anning-Dorson, & Babatope, 2022; Laar, Kolog, Agbedemnab, & Bayitaa, 2023; Yawson, 2024). The proliferation of mobile devices, social media and data analytics has transformed consumer engagement (Appel, Grewal, Hadi, & Stephen, 2020). Ghana's digital economy is poised to contribute significantly to gross domestic product growth, driven by increasing internet and mobile adoption (Aawaar, 2022; Agyapong, 2021; Ankrah et al., 2024; Boakye, Nwabufo, & Dinbabo, 2022). As digital marketing assumes a central role (Homburg & Wielgos, 2022), businesses face the challenge of reconciling personalized marketing with respect for consumer privacy (Khan & Naseeb, 2024; Pires, Santos, Pereira, & Torres, 2023; Singh, 2024).

Data privacy plays a crucial role in digital marketing, with research consistently highlighting its significance in shaping consumer trust (Celestin, 2024; Gabhane, Varalaxmi, Rathod, Hamida, & Anand, 2023; Tasnim et al., 2025). Consumers are increasingly concerned about data collection, storage and usage practices (Maheswari et al., 2023; Morić, Dakic, Djekic, & Regvart, 2024; Pinto, Donta, Dustdar, & Prazeres, 2024), citing issues such as data breaches and lack of transparency (Aghaunor, Eshua, Obah, & Aromokeye, 2025; Boppana, 2023; Mubeen, Arslan, & Anandhi, 2022). Trust remains a vital factor influencing consumer engagement, loyalty and digital marketing success (Haris, 2025; Indriani, Haris, & Nurdin, 2023; Kobets, Тerentieva, Shkvyria, Lysytsia, & Siemak, 2024). Regulatory frameworks, including General Data Protection Regulation and Ghana's Data Protection Act, underscore the importance of data privacy, reflecting its global relevance (Alunge, 2020; Bryant, 2020).

Despite the growing importance of data privacy in digital marketing, research specific to Ghana remains scarce. A notable gap exists in understanding how data privacy perceptions influence marketing effectiveness, particularly at the intersection of consumer trust and marketing outcomes. While existing studies examine Ghana's data protection and information and communication technology regulation (Alunge, 2020; Bryant, 2020; Mensah, 2023; Spirkl, 2024), there is a dearth of research on the nuances of data privacy in digital marketing, leaving a critical knowledge gap. This void is significant, as current studies overlook the local context, neglecting the impact of data privacy concerns (DPCs) on consumer trust and marketing effectiveness. This study aims to address this gap by exploring the privacy paradox in Ghana's digital marketing landscape, including the mediating role of online shopping experience (OSE) and the moderating influence of digital literacy.

This investigation scrutinizes the nexus between DPCs and digital marketing trust (DMT) in Ghana, with particular emphasis on OSE and digital literacy. Anchored in the communication privacy management (CPM) theory, the research elucidates consumer strategies for managing privacy and informs business approaches to cultivating trust. Analysis of data from 1,000 Ghanaian online consumers yields implications for policymakers, businesses and consumers, underscoring the imperative for robust data protection practices, efficacious regulatory enforcement and consumer education initiatives. This study augments extant literature by furnishing empirical insights into data privacy dynamics within Ghana's digital marketing context, extending the applicability of CPM theory and presenting a multidisciplinary perspective on the subject.

The CPM theory (Petronio, 2002) posits that individuals seek control and ownership of private information, establishing privacy boundaries and rules. While its application to Ghana's digital marketing context necessitates consideration of cultural and technological nuances (Chen & Hsu, 2002), CPM has provided valuable insights into consumer privacy behaviors in digital environments (Ogawara, 2025; Özköse, 2022; Roberts, 2024). This investigation applies CPM to elucidate the influence of DPCs on DMT in Ghana, with OSE serving as a mediating variable and digital literacy and online experience moderating this relationship.

DPCs encompass individuals' apprehensions regarding the collection, utilization and protection of personal information online (Smith, Dinev, & Xu, 2011). Ghanaian online consumers encounter distinct challenges stemming from disparate digital literacy levels and privacy awareness (Avuglah, Owusu-Ansah, Tachie-Donkor, & Yeboah, 2020; Abdulai, Tiffere, Adam, & Kabanunye, 2021; Oteng, Manful, & Nkansah, 2024), diverging from Western counterparts with more established data protection norms (Alunge, 2020). A notable disparity exists between large corporations (90% compliance rate) and small and medium-sized enterprises (50% compliance rate) in adhering to emerging data protection laws (Celestin, 2024). Although data encryption technologies mitigate data security and privacy concerns in cloud computing (Maheswari et al., 2023), Ghana's regulatory environment remains nascent (Alunge, 2020). The CPM theory posits that individuals manage private information by establishing boundaries and rules (Petronio, 2002), corroborating Smith et al.'s (2011) findings on the significance of control in DPCs. Malhotra, Kim, and Agarwal's (2004) Internet Users' Information Privacy Concerns (IUIPC) scale underscores the multidimensional nature of DPCs, which this investigation applies to the Ghanaian context. This research examines the influence of DPCs on DMT in Ghana, building upon previous studies on data protection and online consumer behavior.

DMT denotes consumers' confidence in online vendors and their willingness to engage in electronic transactions (Hidayat, Wijaya, Ishak, & Endi Catyanadika, 2021). Building upon Gefen, Karahanna, and Straub's (2003) framework, this investigation examines how respect for private information cultivates trust among Ghanaian online consumers. Ghana's digital marketing landscape is marked by e-commerce growth and DPCs (Gabhane et al., 2023), diverging from more mature markets where trust is more firmly established (Hidayat et al., 2021). Regulatory frameworks governing personal data protection influence customer perceptions of data security and online shopping behavior (Morić et al., 2024), echoing findings in other contexts (Johnsen, 2020). The CPM theory posits that trust is fostered when individuals perceive their private information as respected and protected (Petronio, 2002), aligning with Gefen et al.'s (2003) research on trust in online vendors. This study situates itself within the context of seminal works, such as Smith et al. (2011) and Malhotra et al. (2004), by exploring the intricate relationships among DPCs, DMT and OSE in Ghana.

OSE encompasses consumers' interactions and encounters when purchasing products or services digitally (Izogo & Jayawardhena, 2018), as operationalized by Lian and Lin (2008). Service failure influences affective and cognitive experiences (Barari, Ross, & Surachartkumtonkun, 2020), while consumer trust and shopping experience significantly shape online shopping interest (Retnowati & Mardikaningsih, 2021). Ghanaian consumers' OSEs are molded by distinct cultural and technological factors, diverging from more developed markets (Izogo & Jayawardhena, 2018). The CPM theory posits that individuals manage private information by evaluating risks and benefits associated with online transactions (Petronio, 2002), corroborating Barari et al.'s (2020) findings on the impact of service failure on OSE. This investigation juxtaposes its findings with seminal works to elucidate the mediating role of OSE in the relationship between DPCs and DMT in Ghana.

Digital literacy comprises the skills and knowledge requisite for navigating digital technologies (Ghare & Kastikar, 2024). Ghanaian consumers exhibit varying digital literacy levels, influencing their online behaviors and trust (Ayisi, Yeboah-Banin, Oye, & Ocloo, 2024), echoing findings in other developing countries (Elrayah & Jamil, 2023). Key data security strategies encompass security awareness training (Aghaunor et al., 2025), while preventing illicit data access involves technological solutions, employee education and policy enforcement (Mubeen et al., 2022). The CPM theory posits that individuals with higher digital literacy are more adept at managing private information online (Petronio, 2002), aligning with Ghare and Kastikar's (2024) research on digital literacy and online behavior. This investigation situates itself within the context of influential works, such as Eshet-Alkalai (2004), to examine digital literacy's moderating role in the relationship between DPCs and DMT, with OSE serving as a mediating variable.

Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework, anchored in CPM theory. The framework posits that DPCs exert a negative influence on consumer trust (H1) and OSE (H2). OSE positively affects consumer trust (H3) and mediates the relationship between DPCs and consumer trust (H4). Furthermore, digital literacy moderates the relationship between DPCs and consumer trust (H5).

According to CPM theory, individuals manage private information by evaluating risks and benefits. When consumers perceive elevated data privacy risks, they develop adverse attitudes toward digital marketing, thereby eroding trust (Bandara, Fernando, & Akter, 2021). Empirical studies indicate that data breaches, unauthorized sharing and lack of transparency compromise consumer trust (Boppana, 2023; El-Annan & Hassoun, 2025; Fahad, 2025; Olateju, Okon, Olaniyi, Samuel-Okon, & Asonze, 2024; Strzelecki & Rizun, 2022). In Ghana, limited awareness of data protection regulations may amplify sensitivity to DPCs. Grounded in CPM theory and empirical evidence, it is plausible to hypothesize that.

DPCs can compromise OSEs (Akter, 2020; Bandara, Fernando, & Akter, 2020). When consumers apprehend potential misuse of personal data, they experience anxiety and hesitation toward online transactions (Khoa & Nguyen, 2022). Empirical studies indicate that DPCs diminish online shopping desire and satisfaction while augmenting perceived risk (Al-Jabri, Eid, & Abed, 2019; D’Annunzio & Menichelli, 2022; Liu, Li, Chen, & Luo, 2023; Martin et al., 2020; Tran, 2020). The CPM theory posits that consumers establish rules and boundaries to manage DPCs, thereby influencing online shopping behaviors. Consequently, it is hypothesized that.

A seamless and enjoyable OSE cultivates DMT (Kamuri, Anabuni, Riwu, & Manongga, 2023; Susiang, Suryaningrum, Masliardi, Setiawan, & Abdillah, 2023). Factors such as ease of navigation, clear product information, secure payment processes and responsive customer service contribute to trust-building (Hipólito, Dias, & Pereira, 2025; Islam, 2024; Zhao & Rojniruttikul, 2023). Empirical studies corroborate that positive online experiences enhance satisfaction, loyalty and trust (Al-Adwan, Kokash, Adwan, Alhorani, & Yaseen, 2020; Eneizan, Alsaad, Alkhawaldeh, Rawash, & Enaizan, 2020; Ilyas, Munir, Tamsah, Mustafa, & Yusriadi, 2021; Mohammad, 2022; Mofokeng, 2023). The CPM theory posits those positive experiences augment consumers' confidence in managing private information, thereby fostering trust. Accordingly, it is hypothesized that.

OSE influences the nexus between DPCs and consumer trust (Zhang, Hassandoust, & Williams, 2020). A positive experience can attenuate the adverse impact of DPCs on trust, whereas a subpar experience amplifies it (Khoa & Nguyen, 2022; Mofokeng, 2023; Strzelecki & Rizun, 2022). The CPM theory posits that a positive online experience enhances consumers' perceived control over private information, potentially mitigating the deleterious effects of DPCs on trust. Empirical studies substantiate this mediation effect, underscoring the pivotal role of OSE in shaping consumer trust (Aslam, Hussain, Farhat, & Arif, 2020; Guo, Zhang, & Xia, 2023; Krishnan, Jayabalan, Guo, & Susanto, 2024; Mofokeng, 2023; Panra, 2024; Thanh & Thanh, 2025). It is posited that.

Digital literacy enables consumers to manage private information, navigate online risks and safeguard personal data, thereby influencing their digital marketing perceptions and behaviors (Elrayah & Jamil, 2023; Alfiani & Sara, 2024). The CPM theory posits that high digital literacy attenuates the adverse impact of DPCs on trust by facilitating effective private information management (Abdul Kareem & Oladimeji, 2024). Empirical studies validate digital literacy's moderating role, whereby it enhances trust in digital marketing by augmenting control over online privacy and awareness of data risks (Lee & Al Khaldi, 2020; Lee-Geiller, 2024; Sørensen, 2024; Tsarouhas & Grigoriadis, 2025). Subsequently, it is proposed that.

This investigation employs a quantitative research design to examine the interplay among DPCs, digital literacy, online experience and DMT in Ghana. This design facilitates the collection of numerical data and statistical analysis to test hypotheses and discern the mediating and moderating roles of OSE and digital literacy (Harrison, 2020).

Set in Ghana, this investigation delves into the burgeoning realm of digital marketing and online shopping. With escalating internet penetration and digital technology adoption, Ghana presents a pertinent context to examine how DPCs shape DMT, particularly among online shoppers (Laar et al., 2023; Yawson, 2024).

This investigation concentrates on Ghana's online shoppers, with a specific focus on Jiji customers. With approximately 15 million Ghanaian Internet users engaging in online shopping, Jiji emerges as a significant entity in the country's e-commerce sector, particularly following its acquisition of Tonaton and subsequent expansion of its user base (Sasu, 2025; Dowuona-Hammond et al., 2024).

This investigation employed a multi-stage sampling approach. The Jiji e-commerce platform was purposively selected for its relevance, followed by the random selection of 1,000 users from its database using a random number generator (Quirk et al., 2020). The survey link was subsequently disseminated to the selected sample.

Using the Cochran formula (Cochran, 1977) with the calculated margin of error (e = 0.031).

• n = (Z² *p * q)/e²

• n = (1.96² * 0.5 * 0.5)/0.031²

• n = (3.8416 * 0.25)/0.000961

• n = 0.9604/0.000961

• n = ?

Plug in the figures.

• n = (3.8416 * 0.25)/0.000961

• n = 0.9604/0.000961

• n = 999.48

Thus, the calculated sample size is approximately 1,000.

This research utilized validated scales to measure key constructs related to online shopping behavior, incorporating established measurement scales in the survey instrument, including Malhotra et al.'s (2004) IUIPC scale, Gefen et al.'s (2003) trust in online vendor scale, Lian and Lin's (2008) online shopping experience scale and Eshet-Alkalai's (2004) digital literacy scale. Items were assessed on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Pretesting ensured clarity and effectiveness. Cronbach's alpha evaluated internal consistency reliability (>0.7). Careful survey design mitigated potential biases. Incentives, such as reminders and confidentiality assurances, augmented response rates (Murdoch et al., 2014).

The demographic profile of the respondents is presented in Table 1.

Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was employed to examine the interplay between DPCs, OSE, trust in digital marketing and digital literacy's moderating influence. A two-stage approach was adopted, comprising measurement model assessment and structural model evaluation (Hair et al., 2021).

The measurement model demonstrates robustness, with factor loadings spanning 0.709 to 0.886 (Table 2), exceeding the recommended 0.70 threshold (Hair et al., 2021), thereby indicating strong item-construct relationships. Construct reliability is established via Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability values ≥ 0.70, signifying satisfactory internal consistency. Convergent validity is substantiated by average values extracted ≥ 0.50 (Hair, Risher, Sarstedt, & Ringle, 2019). Discriminant validity is corroborated by heterotrait-monotrait ratios <0.85 (Henseler, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2015), as presented in Table 3, denoting distinct constructs. The measurement model output is depicted in Figure 2. Collectively, the measurement model exhibits commendable reliability and validity.

The structural model's robustness was evaluated through diagnostics, including multicollinearity, R², path coefficients, effect sizes and model fit indices (Hair et al., 2019). Variance of inflation values below 5 indicated no multicollinearity issues (Hair Jr et al., 2017). Adjusted R² values revealed strong explanatory power, with DPCs accounting for 55.9% of variance in DMT and 42.1% in OSE. Stone–Geisser's Q² statistic confirmed the model's predictive relevance, exceeding zero and aligning with R² values (Henseler et al., 2015). Cohen's f² statistic assessed the impact of exogenous constructs, showing DPCs had a large effect on OSE (f² = 0.411), while digital literacy's moderating effect was marginal (f² = 0.006). Path analysis confirmed statistical significance for all hypothesized relationships (Hair et al., 2019). The model's fit was satisfactory, with standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), d_ULS and d_G within acceptable thresholds (Dijkstra & Henseler, 2015; Hu & Bentler, 1999). The PLS-SEM model demonstrated strong statistical robustness and predictive accuracy. Refer to Table 4 for details.

Table 5 presents the path coefficients and hypotheses diagnostics, revealing significant relationships. DPC positively influences DMT (β = 0.380, p < 0.001), supporting H1. DPC also significantly impacts OSE (β = 0.540, p < 0.001), supporting H2. OSE, in turn, affects DMT (β = 0.266, p < 0.001), supporting H3. The mediating effect of OSE is significant (β = 0.143, p < 0.001), supporting H4. Digital literacy (DL) moderates the DPC–DMT relationship (β = 0.047, p = 0.005), supporting H5. All relationships are statistically significant at the 5% level (T-statistics >1.96, p < 0.05). The structural model output is presented in Figure 3.

The model fit summary (Table 6) indicates a reasonable fit, with SRMR values of 0.104 (estimated) and 0.080 (saturated) and acceptable normed fit index (NFI) values (0.795 and 0.805). Although chi-square values are significant, the overall fit indices suggest the model adequately represents the data.

The results reveal a significant positive relationship between DPCs and DMT (β = 0.380, p < 0.001), indicating that a one-standard-deviation increase in DPCs is associated with a 0.38 standard deviation increase in DMT, thereby supporting H1. This implies that Ghanaian consumers tend to exhibit greater trust in digital marketing initiatives when they perceive their data privacy is being safeguarded. This finding is consonant with CPM theory (Petronio, 2002) and extant research (Boppana, 2023; El-Annan & Hassoun, 2025; Fahad, 2025; Olateju et al., 2024; Strzelecki & Rizun, 2022).

The results reveal a robust positive relationship between DPCs and OSE (β = 0.540, p < 0.001), thereby supporting H2. This suggests that DPCs substantially influence OSEs. This finding diverges from the “privacy paradox” (Hoffman, Novak, & Peralta, 1999; Norberg, Horne, & Horne, 2007), implying that Ghanaian consumers' privacy concerns have a direct impact on their OSEs.

A significant positive relationship is evident between OSE and DMT (β = 0.266, p < 0.001), thereby substantiating H3. This suggests that a cohesive and gratifying OSE plays a pivotal role in fostering trust. This finding is consonant with CPM theory (Petronio, 2002) and extant research (Kamuri et al., 2023; Susiang et al., 2023; Al-Adwan et al., 2020; Eneizan et al., 2020; Ilyas et al., 2021; Mohammad, 2022; Mofokeng, 2023), underscoring the importance of streamlined online interactions in cultivating trust in digital marketing initiatives.

The results indicate that OSE positively mediates the relationship between DPCs and DMT (β = 0.143, p < 0.001), thereby substantiating H4. This implies that a favorable OSE can attenuate the adverse effects of privacy concerns, consequently augmenting trust (Zhang et al., 2020; Khoa & Nguyen, 2022; Guo et al., 2023).

The results indicate that digital literacy positively moderates the relationship between DPCs and DMT (β = 0.047, p < 0.01, f² = 0.006), thereby substantiating H5. This suggests that consumers with higher digital literacy are more adept at managing privacy risks, thereby retaining trust in digital marketing (Elrayah & Jamil, 2023; Alfiani & Sara, 2024; Abdul Kareem & Oladimeji, 2024; Sørensen, 2024; Lee & Al Khaldi, 2020; Lee-Geiller, 2024; Tsarouhas & Grigoriadis, 2025). However, the relatively weak moderating effect (f² = 0.006) implies that digital literacy's impact is modest, suggesting other factors may exert a more substantial influence on the privacy-trust nexus.

A comparative analysis of effect sizes reveals that the relationship between DPCs and OSE (β = 0.540) is stronger than the relationship between DPCs and DMT (β = 0.380), indicating that DPCs play a more significant role in shaping OSEs. Furthermore, the mediating effect of OSE (β = 0.143) is weaker than the direct effect of DPCs on DMT (β = 0.380), suggesting that OSE partially mediates the relationship.

This study extends the CPM theory to an emerging digital economy, providing nuanced insights into DMT. Contrary to traditional views, the findings suggest DPCs can catalyze trust when firms demonstrate ethical and transparent data handling (H1). OSE partially mediates the privacy–trust relationship (H4), while digital literacy enables consumers to transform concerns into trust-based decisions (H5) (Petronio, 2002). This research highlights the interplay between platform attributes and consumer capabilities in co-producing trust, underscoring the importance of synergistic interactions in fostering digital trust.

For digital marketers and policymakers in emerging markets like Ghana, the findings offer actionable insights. To build trust, organizations should prioritize data privacy as a strategic imperative, clearly communicating protection measures and implementing user-centric policies, as evidenced by the significant relationship between DPCs and DMT (H1). Investing in intuitive user experience design can mitigate privacy concerns and foster trust, given the mediating role of OSE (H3, H4). Digital literacy programs can empower users to manage privacy risks, as digital literacy positively moderates the relationship between DPCs and DMT (H5). Marketers should tailor campaigns to vary literacy levels, promoting transparency and empowering users to manage privacy risks. Ultimately, trust is built through ethical, seamless and informed digital experiences.

The study's limitations include its Ghana-centric focus, which may constrain generalizability to other Sub-Saharan African countries with distinct cultural and regulatory contexts. The quantitative approach may also overlook nuanced consumer perceptions of privacy and trust. Furthermore, the findings may be specific to the Jiji e-commerce platform, and relationships may differ across other e-commerce platforms, social media or fintech. Additionally, the study did not consider the potential influence of institutional trust, such as confidence in government regulations or third-party data protection certifications, which may impact the privacy-trust nexus.

Future research can expand on this study by applying the model to other Sub-Saharan African countries, exploring cultural and regulatory influences on the privacy-trust dynamic. Qualitative approaches, such as in-depth interviews or focus groups, can provide richer insights into consumer perceptions. Examining relationships across diverse digital platforms (e.g. e-commerce, social media and fintech) and incorporating institutional trust (e.g. government regulations and data protection certifications) as a moderating or mediating factor can further elucidate digital trust formation and extend current privacy-trust models. Analyzing specific dimensions of the OSE, such as payment security and customer service response speed, may reveal effective strategies for mitigating privacy concerns’ negative impacts on DMT.

This study pioneers the examination of the interplay between DPCs, OSE, digital literacy and DMT in Ghana's nascent digital economy. By elucidating the mediating role of OSE and the moderating effect of digital literacy, this research offers groundbreaking insights into the intricate trust-building mechanisms in digital marketing. The findings emphasize the need for a human-centered approach, integrating data privacy, user experience, and consumer education to cultivate trust in digital platforms.

The University of Professional Studies, Accra's Institutional Review Board (IRB)/Ethics Committee approved this study (Reference Number: UPSARCC9165).

Informed consent was implied through participants' voluntary completion of the online survey, which did not pose any risk to participants.

Consent to publish was implied, and the study did not involve identifiable data.