Developing behavioral project management competencies – the generation footprint Open Access

Project management (PM) is a profession that requires “the practice of using knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to complete a series of tasks to deliver value and achieve a desired outcome” (Project Management Institute, 2021). This profession needs qualified project staff (project managers, program managers, portfolio managers, project assistants, associates, etc.) who possess a precisely defined set of competencies. Competencies can be defined as a set of observable and measurable “attributes” required for individuals for effective work performance and includes knowledge, skills, abilities, values, personal traits and motives (Boyatzis, 1982; Wong, 2020). Professional bodies and certification systems in PM filed classified competencies as:

1. Technical, contextual and behavioral (Nahod and Radujković, 2013). Technical competencies include technical knowledge and skills to initiate, manage the execution and to close the project. Contextual competencies enable understanding of project concepts, program and portfolio and the project environment. Behavioral competencies explain behavior and personal attributes that PM staff should have for success on projects. The newest edition of IPMA standard recognizes people, perspective and practice competencies (IPMA, 2015).

2. Knowledge, performance and personal characteristics (Project Management Institute, 2013). Knowledge refers to the concepts, methodologies, practices and vocabulary that PM staff should understand and use. Performance indicates what PM staff can do or accomplish while applying PM knowledge. Personal competencies define how PM staff should behave when performing the project or related activity.

Diverse studies in the field have introduced additional classifications of project management competencies, such as those concerning hard skills and soft skills (Cakmakci, 2019) and the models and frameworks proposed for project management competencies (Dziekoński, 2017; Müller and Turner, 2010).

In this paper, focus is on BPMC which can be defined as behaviors based on personal attributes (traits, abilities, skills) that contribute to the PM staff success in performing project activities and duties (IPMA, 2015). Literature review in project management area, targeting PM competencies, revealed that researchers have primarily studied the influence of behavioral competencies, personal and social dimensions, on project success (Boyatzis, 1982; Hopkins and Bilimoria, 2008; Sposito et al., 2024; Stubbs Koman and Wolff, 2008). Competencies such as leadership, communication, motivation and emotional intelligence show a strong positive impact on the success of projects (Sampaio et al., 2022). Competencies from other dimensions, received less attention in the literature (Ochoa Pacheco et al., 2023). For example, there is still little research evidence explaining how technical competencies specifically contribute to successful project execution (Abdulla et al., 2023).

Bonesso, Zampieri and Boyatzis reviewed studies from the 1980s, which deal with the importance of behavioral competencies in the work environment in terms of the performance and professional success of employees (Bonesso et al., 2020). Dias showed results of the research where 96 project managers from Portugal agree on 13 key competencies that are important for success of the projects, and most of them are behavioral competencies: ethics, reliability, engagement, openness and leadership (Dias et al., 2014). Gruden and colleagues investigate the influence of behavioral competencies on project performance and conclude that the most important competence is assertiveness (Gruden and Stare, 2018). Nahod and Radujkovic found that project management success depends on behavioral competencies as the most important ones, followed by the technical and the contextual (Nahod and Radujković, 2013).

The difficulty arises when attempting to coordinate the competencies of the PM staff with all other project activities. Mainga identified several factors that hinder competence development in projects, including high time pressure near project completion, excessive focus on short-term deliverables and fear of negative consequences when reporting mistakes (Mainga, 2017). Development of behavioral project management competencies (BPMC) is a challenging and complex process, but increasingly important for the people working on projects (Souza et al., 2022). Firstly, it depends on close cooperation between project staff and human resources development (HRD) specialists, who model guidelines for competence development and choose effective methods. While project managers possess the necessary skills to oversee every facet of a project, numerous studies have acknowledged the significance of working in tandem with the HR department or an HR specialist to evaluate and enhance PM staff competencies (Belout and Gauvreau, 2004; Huemann et al., 2007). Competency-based approaches to learning and development have distinct characteristics. For example, authors Prokopenko and colleagues explain that regarding content and methodology, there should be various activities included in educational process such as educational activities, business and game forms, research work and practical training (Prokopenko et al., 2020). Secondly, it depends on individuals included in the learning process, their attitudes, perception of the need for individual competence development and deep inner motivation for additional education (Savaneviciene et al., 2008). In addition, learning becomes more personalized, preferences among employees about approaches to competencies development vary depending on their personal characteristics. And thirdly, learning and development programs, on the one side, require flexibility and adjustment to changing conditions on the market, rapid changes in the necessary competencies for workplace, and on the other side there are rigorous accreditation standards for competence development and new forms of assessment (López-Alcarria et al., 2019). Many studies confirmed that the approach to competencies development can have a significant effect on the employees' skills acquisition (Ibrahim et al., 2017; Nazir et al., 2015). Bonesso et al. (2020) present a study that was the first attempt to systematize the methodologies of the educational programs for behavioral competency development (Bonesso et al., 2020), which was a very good basis for defining the research question of this study.

The objective of this study was to present the most preferred methods and approaches for the development of BPMC. In the theoretical section, a systematic literature review (SLR) was conducted with the aim of identifying and analyzing methods used for developing project management competencies. Various learning strategies were explored, including experiential learning, project-based learning, mentoring, coaching, simulation, serious games and competency-based frameworks. It was found that there is a lack of empirical evidence about project managers' preferences for different methods and approaches for competence development. A significant number of the reviewed studies were conducted using small and non-representative samples, predominantly consisting of students, which raises concerns about the generalizability of the findings to practicing project managers. To address these gaps, empirical research was designed and implemented, focusing on project managers' preferences for different approaches to BPMC development.

This topic is significant as it can contribute to selection of more effective methods for the professional development and education of project managers, regarding BPMC, potentially leading to improved project outcomes. The development of competencies and the selection of appropriate methods require a collaborative approach and the active engagement of experts in project management and human resource management.

The theoretical background will introduce key concepts related to project management competencies and the challenges associated with education and competency development, serving as the foundation for defining research questions. Following this, an overview of the SLR methodology will be provided, detailing the search items, databases, research design, inclusion and exclusion criteria, sample size and key findings. The paper then presents empirical research conducted to address the gaps identified through the SLR. Finally, the conclusions are synthesized, and recommendations for future research are outlined. Study design diagram is presented in Figure 1.

Studies in project management frequently examine the variables that affect the success of a project. A lot of researchers point to project staff, their knowledge, abilities, skills, attitudes, personal characteristics, i.e. their competencies as one of the key factors (Alvarenga et al., 2019; Ballesteros-Sánchez et al., 2019; Moradi et al., 2020). The researchers have endeavored to uncover potential associations between project management competencies and success at different phases of project development (Bashir et al., 2021), especially in social components that increase project complexity and affect project performances (Podgórska and Pichlak, 2019; Slavinski et al., 2023) and sustainability (Silvius and Schipper, 2014; Todorović and Obradović, 2018). Diverse industries have provided evidence that project success is contingent on PM competencies. For instance, Rauzana and colleagues demonstrate that the knowledge of the project manager has a substantial impact on the successful execution of projects (Rauzana et al., 2022), while Elmezain and colleagues have established a correlation between project success and the technical, political, human and conceptual skills of the project staff (Elmezain et al., 2021). Similar and comparable results are reported from the studies on this topic in specific fields: information and communication technologies (ICT) (Blaskovics, 2016), administration (Meirelles et al., 2019), public sector (Lemos Dias et al., 2023).

An increased interest in project management and project staff competencies resulted in a greater adoption of international standards, increased number of academic research on these topics, and more opportunities for training and certification in the project management field regarding individual competencies. On the market, there are more organizations with well-developed standards for project management competencies. The two leading standards are The Project Management Competence Development Framework which describes the generic competencies needed in most projects, organizations and industries and summarize all the knowledge in the filed in PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge) Guide – Seventh Edition (Project Management Institute, 2021) and The Individual Competence Baseline for Project Programme and Portfolio Management -ICB Version 4.0 (International Project Management Association, 2017). Both defined standards address the importance of behavioral/people competencies. ICB Version 4.0 puts focal point on professional development and people involved in project management (Vukomanović et al., 2016). PMBOK states that communication, as personal competence, can be the single biggest reason for a positive or negative outcome of a project (Project Management Institute, 2013). Based on those standards, organizations also have programs for competence development which include training courses and programs, education courses and programs, to prepare project staff for certification in PM field.

Organizations invest substantial resources into employee education and development to enhance knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes, aiming to maximize workplace potential (Colquitt et al., 2022). Human resource development (HRD) plays a crucial role, as systematic approaches to competency development strongly influence employee performance (Ibrahim et al., 2017). Competence development methods range from formal and informal education, technology-assisted learning (e.g. e-learning, virtual reality), to supported learning like mentoring and coaching (Kraiger and Cavanagh, 2014, , 2014; Martin et al., 2014).

In PM, professional development is delivered through higher education institutions (HEIs), corporate training, professional associations and consultants. HEIs typically provide formal education through bachelor's, MBA or PhD programs, often lacking emphasis on soft skills (Alam et al., 2008; Carbone and Gholston, 2004; López-Serrano et al., 2025; Magano et al., 2020; Mohammed and Ozdamli, 2024; Ragusa et al., 2022). Studies show HEIs provide solid theory but limited practical application (Gale and Brown, 2003), prompting companies to supplement on-the-job and off-the-job training (Lachvajderova et al., 2022; Basariya and Sree, 2019) and flexible e-learning methods (Cheng and Chen, 2015). Effective corporate training relies heavily on qualified educators with both pedagogical and subject-matter expertise (Van Rooij, 2013). Project management competencies are developed not only through formal training but also within organizations, where learning occurs via continuous knowledge creation and conversion processes. According to Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995), tacit and explicit knowledge are transformed and shared across individual, group and organizational levels, enabling employees to internalize experiences and apply them in practice, which contributes to the development of behavioral competencies.

Professional associations like IPMA and PMI also play a key role, offering certifications, training and global standards for continuous development. These initiatives help project managers enhance performance, manage complex projects and access better job opportunities (Rastovski, 2021), although some argue good practices can yield similar benefits (McHugh and Hogan, 2009). Associations also shape broader societal views on project management, promoting professional culture and resilience during global challenges (Wagner et al., 2022).

Additional support comes from training providers and consultants offering customized workshops and simulation-based training (SBT). SBT is effective in enhancing declarative knowledge and learner motivation (Zwikael et al., 2015), though less adaptable to individual differences (DeRouin et al., 2004). Self-directed learning, networking and involvement in communities of practice further support PM competency development, enabling knowledge sharing and peer learning (Killen et al., 2012).

Through the analysis of project manager education, it was difficult to identify specific methods used for developing their competencies, especially development of behavioral competencies. This highlighted the need for a more systematic approach to the analysis of literature in the field of competency development.

The research questions in this study were formulated through a two-step process, combining theoretical grounding with empirical inquiry, to ensure a comprehensive exploration of the subject matter. The two research questions explored in this study are:

RQ1 will be addressed through the qualitative synthesis of the SLR, which included analysis of publication types, sample sizes, focus areas and methodology.

RQ2 will be analyzed through quantitative methods applied to the empirical study data collected via an international online survey. Respondents (n = 988) rated their preferences for five development methods. A mixed ANOVA was used to test differences in preferences across methods and generations, allowing analysis of both main effects and interactions.

A SLR involves conducting a thorough search for relevant studies on a specific topic, then evaluating and synthesizing the identified studies using a clearly defined method (Ahmed et al., 2021). This approach ensures more systematically and objectively report on previous research, distinguishing them from traditional literature reviews (Xiao and Watson, 2019). In this paper, PRISMA methodology is applied which includes a systematic search strategy, clear inclusion/exclusion criteria, data extraction and risk of bias assessment, all crucial for the reliability and reproducibility of systematic reviews (Page et al., 2021).

The first step in methodology was to define keywords that will be used for searching from bibliographic databases. Initial search was performed based on different keywords, including the following “project manager”, “project management”, “competency development”, “skills development”, “competency training” which were used as BOOLEAN combinations (keywords with AND and OR) to refine search and make sure it's more specific to topic (Table 1):

1. “Project management” AND “competency training”

2. “Project management” AND “competencies development”

3. “Project manager” AND “skills development”

The SLR included searching electronic databases Web of Science and Google Scholar. Studies published between 2015 and 2025 were analyzed.

The goal of this research was to systematically review the abstracts of published studies to identify papers that describe methods for the development of competencies among project managers. The aim was to analyze which methods are most frequently applied, which are preferred by project managers, and what outcomes are associated with their use. Abstracts were retained for further analysis if they included the following key terms:

1. project management,

2. project manager competencies or skills,

3. competencies or skills development and

4. methods or approaches for competencies development.

This filtering approach ensured that only publications with a clear focus on project managers' competency development were included. Each abstract was then assessed and assigned a ranking of one (1) or two (2), based on the relevance and significance of the content and the presence of empirical findings. A similar approach has been proposed in the works of Ochoa Pacheco et al. and Maisiri et al. (Maisiri et al., 2019; Ochoa Pacheco et al., 2023). Articles ranked as three (3) – typically those where relevant keywords appeared only in background sections or without meaningful results – were excluded from further analysis. The abstracts with rankings of one (1) and two (2) were subsequently reviewed in full detail for inclusion in the study.

The initial search applied specific inclusion criteria to ensure relevance and quality of sources. For an article to be considered in the review, it had to:

1. be published in the English language,

2. be related to the field of project management and

3. contain the specified search keywords

The number of articles retrieved using specific keyword combinations across different databases and time periods is summarized in Table 1. Following the initial search, a duplicate check was performed to eliminate articles retrieved from multiple databases. All duplicate entries were subsequently removed.

In the second screening phase, the remaining articles were assessed for eligibility based on defined inclusion criteria. Full-text versions of the selected papers were retrieved and examined. To be included at this stage, articles were required to meet the following criteria:

1. The title or abstract had to explicitly mention project manager competency development,

2. The study had to include a qualitative or quantitative examination of methods for competencies development.

Articles that did not meet these criteria, if relevant content was not found in the abstract, results or discussion sections, were excluded from further analysis.

An initial search across databases yielded 10,276 articles. Following the title screening process, and in line with the methodology proposed, 104 articles were shortlisted. After applying the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, 43 articles remained. Of these, 28 were later excluded after full-text analysis revealed they did not focus on methods or approaches for competency development within project management. Consequently, 15 articles met all inclusion criteria and were selected for in-depth review and synthesis in the SLR on project manager competency development.

PRISMA 2020 Flowchart for SLR is presented in Figure 2. The analyzed literature includes a well-rounded set of journal articles (11) and conference papers (4) published between 2015 and 2025.

The SLR aimed to identify commonly applied methods for developing project management competencies. Despite an initial pool of 10,276 articles, only 15 met the inclusion criteria. The focus of this study is on methods for the development of project management competencies, which represent a multidimensional research niche intersecting project management, human resource development, and training practices. Despite a broader pool of literature in the individual domains, the specific combination of these topics, particularly empirical studies that examine how competencies are developed through structured methods, has been scarcely addressed over the past decade.

Addressing RQ1, the studies included in the SLR highlight a diverse set of methods for developing project management competencies, with a strong emphasis on experiential and active learning approaches. Coaching and peer coaching were explored as effective tools for soft skills development (Thompson, 2019) while project-based learning (PBL) was shown to enhance emotional intelligence and teamwork (Fioravanti et al., 2020). Simulation-based learning and serious games were frequently applied to strengthen both technical and behavioral skills (Armenia et al., 2024; Geithner and Menzel, 2016; Kearney et al., 2024). Studies also examined virtual art-based training as a means of improving uncertainty competence (Sandberg et al., 2022), design thinking as a method for fostering empathy and problem-solving (Ewin et al., 2017), and group-based assessment to simulate real-world project dynamics (Tumpa et al., 2023). Structured leadership development programs were emphasized for enhancing ambidextrous leadership and change management competencies (Misbahuddin et al., 2025), while gamification and blended learning approaches were recommended for improving learner engagement and adaptability (Özsoy and Sezgili, 2024). Additionally, the DACUM method was used to develop training frameworks aligned with AI-related project competencies (Psyché et al., 2023), and Delphi-based expert input informed competency priorities across project phases (Bashir et al., 2021). Finally, competency development was also supported through customized job-based training (Yoon et al., 2020) and PMI-based certifications and planning workshops (Irfan et al., 2021; Rehan et al., 2024).

Review revealed a significant empirical gap, since only a few studies directly examine project managers' explicit preferences for specific development methods. It also revealed a significant sample gap, as most studies rely on small, homogenous samples, often from academic or expert contexts, thereby limiting the generalizability and practical relevance of their findings.

The reviewed studies (e.g. Alvarenga et al., 2019; Podgórska and Pichlak, 2019; Sampaio et al., 2022; Sposito et al., 2024) predominantly emphasize the identification and classification of behavioral competencies linked to project success, such as leadership, communication and emotional intelligence. Some works, like Anantatmula and Shrivastav (2012), introduce a generational dimension by examining Generation Y project teams. However, most studies published in the leading project management journals, International Journal of Project Management, International Journal of Managing projects in business and Project Management Journal do not systematically address intergenerational differences or project managers' preferences for specific methods of developing behavioral competencies. Likewise, literature largely focuses on defining which competencies matter, while offering limited insights into how these competencies are effectively developed through approaches such as mentoring, coaching or experiential learning. This gap highlights the relevance of the present research, which explores project managers' preferences for behavioral competency development methods across different generations.

Given the lack of comprehensive and high-quality studies, particularly those examining project managers' preferences for specific competency development approaches, this paper places greater emphasis on empirical study. Empirical research contributes to theory building in the field of project manager competency development by providing original data on practitioners' preferences and generational differences in development methods.

The research aims to analyze different approaches for BPMC development and examine the differences in preferred approaches among different generations in the workplace.

As a model of BPM competencies, international standard Individual Competence Baseline 4.0 (IPMA ICB®), an area of people competencies, was used. The competencies are defined in The Individual Competence Baseline 4.0 (IPMA ICB®) (International Project Management Association, 2017). Those competencies are recognized as important ones for PMs to achieve the success leading project, program and/or portfolio. People competencies include 10 different competencies, and they are described as follows (Hermarij, 2016; IPMA, 2015):

1. Self-reflection and self-management - Ability to understand and control emotions and behaviors; ability to set and manage personal goals and deal successfully with stressful situations.

2. Personal integrity and reliability - Using ethical standards and moral principles as a basis for actions, decision making and taking responsibility for it.

3. Personal communication- Enable individuals to communicate effectively in a variety of situations, to different audiences and across diverse cultures; to carefully choose tone of voice, channel and amount of information.

4. Relationships and engagement - Ability to form strong relationships based on empathy, trust, confidence and sharing vision with others, engaging them in tasks and common goals.

5. Leadership- Ability to choose appropriate styles of management in different situations; provide direction and motivate others to enhance individual and team performance.

6. Teamwork- Building a productive team, promoting team communication and strong relationships, supporting and leading teams in all stages.

7. Conflict and crises- Moderating and solving conflicts and crises by understanding causes, taking effective actions, and stimulating a learning process for future conflicts and crises.

8. Resourcefulness- Ability to apply various techniques and ways of thinking when analyzing, prioritizing, finding alternatives and dealing with challenges and problems.

9. Negotiation- Skill that enables the individual to reach satisfactory agreements with others by using negotiation techniques.

10. Results orientation- This competence enables individuals to focus on agreed outcomes and drive toward making the project a success.

The most common approaches to competency development were identified by analyzing their characteristics and effects (Bafaneli and Setibi, 2015; Fagerholm et al., 2014; Rumore et al., 2016; Savelsbergh et al., 2012).

1. Lectures/Training/Workshops:

This traditional approach involves expert-led sessions that facilitate knowledge sharing and open discussion (Ramazani and Jergeas, 2015). Workshops often include hands-on tasks with evaluation (Martin et al., 2014), and case studies promote problem-solving and teamwork (Erbas, 2016; Minniti et al., 2017). Workshops often used project-based learning, helping students build adaptability and real-time decision-making skills essential for managing dynamic, real-world projects (Afzal and Tumpa, 2025). A variety of accredited programs, courses and trainer certifications are available in the PM field.

1. Tutorials/E-Courses:

Digital learning allows flexibility, self-paced study and access to global content (Lee and Shvetsova, 2019). Companies often create their own LMS platforms. However, challenges include self-discipline, screen fatigue and content overload (Akhter et al., 2021).

1. Simulation/Role Playing/VR Training:

Simulation and VR replicate real project scenarios, encouraging interactive learning and role adaptation (Grossman et al., 2009; Rumore et al., 2016). These methods enhance soft skills and attitudes like responsibility and self-efficacy (Chernikova et al., 2020; Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2020) and are increasingly used in both corporate and academic environments (Khatib et al., 2022).

1. Mentoring and Coaching:

These approaches support individual growth through personalized feedback and development (Eby et al., 2013; Passmore and Association for Coaching, 2010). Mentoring is especially effective in onboarding and project success (Fagerholm et al., 2014), while coaching improves confidence, decision-making and organizational culture (Berg and Karlsen, 2016; Theeboom et al., 2014; Thompson and Cox, 2017).

1. On-the-Job Training:

This method involves learning by observing experienced colleagues and engaging in real tasks (Noe, 2017). Trainers play a crucial role by guiding, monitoring and providing feedback (Bafaneli and Setibi, 2015; Matsuo, 2014). Though effective, time pressure can limit reflection and feedback (Savelsbergh et al., 2012). HR can help embed long-term competency development strategies (Savelsbergh et al., 2012).

There are four different generations in the working environment: Baby Boomers, Generation X, Generation Y, Generation Z. Earlier research on this topic explains the differences between generations and the differences in their work and behavior in the working environment, as well as how they react to different approaches to competence development. Authors of different studies give recommendations which models of competence development correspond to generations (Berge, 2022; Castrucci, 2018; Shaw, 2013; Tolbize, 2008)

1. Baby boomers: Technology is not as close to them as younger generations, they prefer face-to-face training, group discussions and classroom work to develop competencies.

2. Generation X: Prefers learning on the job, through work, role play, demonstration.

3. Generation Y: Prefers learning by doing with mentor. They use technology every day for learning and development. This generation is also ready for independent learning and access to information. The focus is on non-traditional approaches in the development of competencies through physical movement, multi-tasking, learning through play.

4. Generation Z: Digital generation, familiar with technology. They seek stability and value diversity in the work environment.

Anantatmula and Shrivastav, based on literature review, show the summary of four generations and their preferred learning styles on projects: veterans prefer classroom and on the job training, baby boomers prefer classroom and instructor focused training, Generation X prefer technology focus and work with mentors, and Generation Y prefer creative thinking and visual presentation (Anantatmula and Shrivastav, 2012).

Research starts with three hypotheses:

For the purposes of the research, a questionnaire was created to examine preferences of individuals about certain approaches for the development of a specific competence.

The questionnaire consists of three sections of questions:

1. Section 1- The questions explore demographic characteristics and experience of participants in the research (gender, generation, region, education, working experience, project environment, experience with competence development programs and experience with methods for behavioral competencies development).

2. Section 2- The questions explore organizational readiness for employee competence development (company industry, number of employees, frequency of competencies development programs for employees in company, quality of competencies development programs for employees in company).

3. Section 3- The questions explore preferences in BPM competencies development among participants (preferences toward a different approach in the development of specific BPM competence). They include ten BPM competencies, which are explained by behavioral examples, and for every competence there are examples of five different approaches for competence development. Participants were asked to evaluate all development approaches for specific BPM competence, using a four-point Likert scale, where 1 means I completely disagree, and 4 means I completely agree with a given statement.

The questionnaire was tested using interviews with experts in the field of project management and human resource management.

We conducted online research using Pollfish, an online survey platform where researchers can create a survey questionnaire and address it to a specific audience. The audience in this research was targeted, including respondents employed, from 72 specific countries and all continents. Pollfish has been compliant with the GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation), the EU regulation for personal data protection, since 25th May 2018, and the GDPR-UK, regarding processing of any portion of the reporting deliverables comprising of personal data. Research was conducted from September 13th, 2023, to October 30th, 2023.

The sample consists of 988 respondents (588 male and 400 female), and all of them are employed. There are 39 baby boomers' representatives, 218 respondents from Generation X, 570 of them are from Generation Y and 161 from Generation Z. The research has included 72 countries around the world. Sample structure is represented in Table 2.

Regarding experience with competence development programs, most respondents have experience as a participant (results presented in Figure 3) and regarding approaches for behavioral competencies development, they chose on-the-job training as the best one, based on their previous experience (results presented in Figure 4).

In the sample, there are employees from different industries: marketing and trade (9.71%), economics, accounting, finance, law (11.31%), information and communication technologies (23.32%), social and humanities-education, human resources, childcare, social work, medicine (14.91%), media, tourism, catering, creative industries (6.51%), production, architecture, construction, mechanical engineering, traffic (23.72%), public sector services (10.51%). Regarding the size of the companies, there are 9.31% micro companies (fewer than 10 employees), 19.32% small companies (10–49 employees), 32.73% medium companies (50–249 employees) and 38.64% large companies (250 or more people). On the question of how often companies organize education for employees, 56.86% respondents state that companies periodically organize opportunities for competence development through trainings/lectures/seminars, 35.14% respondents state that companies always have open opportunities for competence development through talent programs and development departments, and 8.01% of respondents claim that companies never have open opportunities for competence development. Regarding quality of development programs, respondents evaluate it mainly as good (41.24%) or very good (38.94%).

Firstly, we counted means and standard deviations for each BPM competence development approach by each generation. Thus, with aim to test the significance of differences among the four targeted generations in preferred BPM competencies development approach, we conducted two-way mixed Analysis of Variance with generation as between-subject independent variable, and BPM competence development approach as within-subject independent variable. The generation factor consisted of four distinct levels (Baby Boomers, Generation X, Generation Y and Generation Z), whilst the approach factor contained five levels (lecture on the topic/training/workshop, tutorial or e-course, simulation or role playing/virtual reality training, mentoring/coaching, on-the-job training). The dependent variable was obtained as the average rating of participants on a 4-point Likert scale regarding their preference for a specific approach across ten competencies. Finally, to test differences among specific levels of our independent variables, we counted a priori contrasts. Hence, the research design we employed is the 4x5 mixed 2-factorial design.

The results are organized into three main sections. The first section presents descriptive statistics. Next section shows the results of testing our research hypotheses using ANOVA. Finally, in the third section, differences among generations or different approaches for competence development will be presented to further examine the quality of general distinctions.

Section 1. In Table 3, means and standard deviations, along with the number of participants per matrix cell, are presented. The most prominent trend reflected in the table is the increasing preference for each approach to competence development with changing generations, where each approach is more favored by younger respondents. Furthermore, upon scrutinizing the overall means for various BPM competence development approaches, it becomes apparent that their distinctions are marginal. Lastly, a noteworthy detail evident in the table is the significantly uneven distribution of participants across generations, an aspect we will briefly delve into in the discussion.

Section 2. To test the significance of the aforementioned differences, which actually represent our research hypotheses, we analyzed our data by mixed 2-way ANOVA. Before conducting the mixed ANOVA, the assumption of sphericity was tested using Mauchly's Test. The Mauchly's W statistic was W = 0.741 (χ² = 293.840, p < 0.001), indicating a violation of the sphericity assumption. Considering this, the ANOVA was performed, incorporating the Huynh–Feldt correction for degrees of freedom (Huynh and Feldt, 1976).

Hypothesis H1 pertained to the main effect of generation factor. ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of generation (F (3,984) = 6.594, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.02), irrespective of preferences in approaches for BPM competencies development, pointing out that individuals from distinct generations exhibit variations in the preference for each method individually, but in a consistent manner, with younger generations expressing a higher preference for each method. This result supports our hypothesis H1.

Additionally, our hypothesis H2 regarded the main effect of the BPM competencies development approaches and posited that there are differences in approaches irrespective of generation. Our study found a significant main effect of approaches for competencies development (F (3.517, 3460.578) = 77.771, p < 0.001, η² = 0.07), regardless of generation, which indicates that individual methods differ in terms of their level of preference, but these differences are consistent within each generation. This means that some approaches to competence development are preferred higher, while others are lower, but the preference pattern is the same in all generation's members. These results also support our hypothesis H2.

Finally, our hypothesis H3 stated that there would be an interaction effect of generation and BPM competencies development approach. However, no interaction effect between generation and approach to competence development was observed (F (10.551, 3460.578) = 0.559, p = 0.857), pointing out that various generations do not differ in preference to various approaches. This, in conclusion, means that our hypothesis H3 hasn't found enough evidence in the data.

The results of ANOVA are also depicted in Figure 5. These findings indicate that generations differ in their general training preferences. For example, baby boomers prefer all approaches to competence development less than all other generations. Younger generations, Generation Y and Z, have similar opinions when evaluating approaches for BPM competence development. Also, results show that various approaches are preferred to different extents by participants overall, regardless of their generational affiliation. For example, on-the-job training is evaluated as the most desirable approach to BPM competencies development, followed by mentoring and coaching, by all four generations, while simulation or role playing/virtual reality training, and tutorials and e-courses are evaluated as the least desirable approaches for developing BPM competencies.

Section 3. With the aim of testing differences between specific generations and approaches, we conducted a planned contrasts analysis. First, the results of the differences in the levels of the generation variable will be presented. Specifically, these results will show the differences among individuals of different generations regarding their preferences for all approaches to BPM competencies development in general, rather than specific approaches. In this case, difference contrasts were used, considering that generations are in an ordered relationship in the levels of this factor. The results indicate that each level of this variable significantly differs from the previous one, with each successive generation reporting significantly higher average preferences. This means that members of Generation Z generally reported the highest preferences for training in BPM competencies development, while baby boomers expressed the lowest preference. Holding in mind that there was no interaction effect registered, it can be stated that the differences among different generations mentioned are identical for each approach type. All contrast tests are presented in Table 4.

Finally, in the case of the “approach” factor, deviation contrasts were calculated for distinct levels, considering that the relationships between the levels of this factor are purely qualitative and unordered (Table 5). More precisely, the results of this analysis will indicate which approaches are preferred compared to the average preference. In this case, it is important to note that the preference for different approaches was obtained by averaging the preferences of all generations, not individual generations. Deviation contrasts reveal that all approaches significantly differ from the average preference. Lecture, e-course and simulations are significantly less preferred, while mentoring/coaching and on-the-job training are significantly more preferred compared to the average. For recollection, considering that we have not registered interaction effect, those results indicate that the registered differences have the same pattern among all generations.

This study aimed to investigate preferred methods for developing BPMC, combining insights from a SLR with a large-scale empirical study. The comparison between literature and empirical data provides meaningful insights into how BPMC development is conceptualized vs how it is perceived in practice.

Addressing RQ1, the SLR revealed a broad range of methods discussed in the literature, including mentoring and coaching (Thompson, 2019; Savelsbergh et al., 2012; Berg and Karlsen, 2016), on-the-job training (Fagerholm et al., 2014; Sense, 2011), simulation-based training (Geithner and Menzel, 2016; Chernikova et al., 2020), gamification and e-learning (Özsoy and Sezgili, 2024; Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2020), design thinking (Ewin et al., 2017) and formal education, lectures and case studies (Ramazani and Jergeas, 2015; Martin et al., 2014). These studies often emphasized innovation and conceptual potential but were typically based on small or homogeneous samples, with limited empirical validation. A limited number of studies have considered project managers' preferences regarding specific approaches to competency development. Our empirical results contribute to existing studies by addressing these challenges and providing new insights into the examined phenomena. Addressing RQ2, the empirical study conducted with 988 participants across 72 countries and four generations, demonstrated a clear and consistent preference for mentoring/coaching and on-the-job training. These methods were favored across all generational groups, underscoring their universal applicability and perceived value. These empirical findings align with previous research emphasizing the relevance of experiential and socially grounded learning methods for project management competency development. Studies by Thompson (2019), Savelsbergh et al. (2012) and Berg and Karlsen (2016) highlighted mentoring and coaching as particularly effective for developing behavioral and leadership competencies, while Fagerholm et al. (2014) and Sense (2011) demonstrated that on-the-job learning enhances both technical and tacit knowledge in project contexts.

Regarding generational differences, the study shows that younger generations show greater openness and enthusiasm toward all competency's development methods. Baby boomers reported the lowest interest, followed by Generation X, while Generations Y and Z demonstrated the strongest inclination toward competencies development activities. However, despite these generational differences in intensity, the pattern of preferences remained the same across all groups, there was no significant interaction between generation and approach. This means that all generations favor similar types of methods: on-the-job training and mentoring/coaching are most preferred, while e-courses, simulations, and lectures or workshops are less preferred. In summary, while younger generations are more open and positive toward all forms of learning, the overall hierarchy of preferred methods is shared across generations, highlighting a universal appreciation for experiential and mentoring-based development approaches.

Both SLR and empirical data highlight mentoring/coaching and on-the-job training as highly effective and relevant, reinforcing the idea that socially grounded, experiential methods are most suitable for BPMC. These results extend existing theory by addressing challenges in competencies development among project managers such as previously identified by other authors, such as high time pressure near project completion, excessive focus on short-term deliverables and fear of negative consequences when reporting mistakes (Mainga, 2017). Nowadays challenges are related to collaboration with different stakeholders (Ali and Haapasalo, 2023) international regulation related to environment, sustainable development (Van Der Sluijs and Silvius, 2023) technology development, artificial intelligence (Psyché et al., 2023). Mentoring provides context-specific guidance, directly applicable to the specific system, processes, procedures, culture and it is immediately actionable. Additionally, it is personalized, enables transfers of a tacit knowledge and support networking. On-the-job training enables individuals to immediately apply competences to real project work, it is highly relevant for work, contributes to team integration and real-time problem solving.

Mentoring and on-the-job learning help overcome these challenges in developing project managers' competencies, as they enable continuous learning through practical experience, regular feedback and ongoing support.

Meanwhile, methods like e-learning, simulations and lectures, though widely discussed in literature, were rated significantly lower by practitioners. This contrast reveals a disconnect between academic discourse and real-world preferences, particularly regarding simulation-based or digital learning methods. While literature often promotes these methods as innovative and future-oriented (Geithner and Menzel, 2016; Chernikova et al., 2020; Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2020; Özsoy and Sezgili, 2024), they frequently lack the social interaction, feedback mechanisms and contextual immersion that practicing project managers find most effective for developing behavioral competencies. Previous research has also emphasized that formal and academic approaches, such as lectures or standardized training, often fail to address the complexity and situational nature of project management practice (Ramazani and Jergeas, 2015).

This study contributes significantly to both theoretical and practical understanding of BPMC development. Theoretically, it addresses long-standing gaps in literature by providing empirical validation of methods discussed primarily in conceptual terms, such as mentoring, coaching and on-the-job learning. It also challenges assumptions around the effectiveness of digital and simulation-based methods, which are often promoted but lack practitioner validation. Practically, the findings offer actionable insights for organizations, educators, and training providers by revealing which BPMC development methods are preferred by project managers. These insights can guide the design of more effective, learner-centered training programs that align with real-world expectations across generational and cultural contexts.

The originality of this study lies in its scale and scope: it is the first empirical research in the past decade to explore BPMC development with such a large and globally distributed sample.

On the other hand, this study faces several limitations that should be acknowledged when interpreting the findings. During SLR, authors have used two databases, Wos and Google scholar. WoS was used primarily, as historically known for its selective coverage, focusing on high-impact journals, particularly in social sciences, and excellent citation tracking. Additionally, authors used Google Scholar, as the search engine that indexes a vast array of academic, because of specific niche, project management competences development among generations, trying to investigate academic literature across the web, including journal articles, theses, books, abstracts, online repositories, universities, etc. The broader database coverage maybe would enhance the comprehensiveness of SLR. In the empirical phase of this study Pollfish online survey platform was used. It is efficient in reaching a large and global audience, but it also has some limitations. Since the data are collected via mobile devices, a sample skewed toward younger, more digitally active participants. Thus, the sample distribution across generations was uneven (e.g. Baby Boomers n = 39 vs. Gen Y n = 570), which may have influenced the representativeness of the results.

Future research should further explore long-term outcomes of these preferred methods and examine how hybrid models combining multiple approaches might enhance competency development. Additionally, further investigation is needed into contextual variables, such as project type, industry and organizational maturity, that may influence preferences or effectiveness of development methods.

By addressing long-standing empirical and sample gaps, this study advances the discourse on BPMC and lays the groundwork for more evidence-based approaches to developing the human side of project management. Since projects are an integral part of every modern organization, the importance of project managers and their competencies is exceptionally high. In practice, the findings of this study can support the improvement of training, development and selection processes for project managers by emphasizing the systematic development of behavioral competencies. On a broader level, strengthening these competencies contributes to more effective project implementation, generating positive economic and social impact.

The paper is the result of the project “Digitization in Research and Practice” by the International Project Management Association (IPMA).